List of Definitions & Dictionary, Rus 2 Russia
Maybe this is reference material, not reading material, although it is interesting to read through.
First I’ll make this comment about any alphabetical list: Everything on this site is translated from the Russian. What was in alphabetical order in Russian won’t translate into an English alphabetical order. The letters correspond like this, the order is cross-ways:
Furthermore, a word of the same meaning won’t necessarily start with the same letter, nor a corresponding letter. That said, here is a short list of definitions and a longer dictionary of what Gumilev refers to when he mentions these topics. (41 pages, 17,500 words)
The dictionary is interesting to read, maybe a couple hours. Learn lots of Russian tradition. There is mention of the many many tribes of the eras, a help to sort them out. And there is good information on the formation of the early Christian Church, and its rites.
Glossary of terms and seldom used words
Adaptation - an ethnic group's adaptation to the landscape by developing new stereotypes of behavior.
Anti-system ethnic - a community of people united by a negative worldview.
Hierarch - the highest clergyman of the Orthodox Church.
Bagatur (Mongolian.) - literally "one in whom God lives"; unofficial name for the steppe bogatyrs.
Barmah/barmy - in Rus: an ornament of sovereigns and high clergy in the form of a wide necklace.
Varyag - in Byzantium: any hired warrior; in Rus' in the IX-X centuries: a warrior from Scandinavia.
Vasilevs/basilevs (Greek): emperor in Byzantium.
Vezha - tent, yurt, collapsible portable dwelling of the steppe.
Harmonious people - people, whose passionate impulse is equal to the value of the impulse of the instinct of self-preservation.
The ethnic homeostasis is a stable state of the ethnic system in which fluctuations of biochemical energy - passionarity - are insignificant, which determines the ethno-landscape balance and the absence of change in the phases of ethnogenesis.
Hryden - in Rus: a soldier of the personal guard of a prince or boyar.
Hryvnia - 1) Old Russian monetary unit in the form of a silver bar of a certain weight; 2) men's neck ornament.
Gulyam (Turk.) - a professional warrior.
Gubny headmen - heads of small administrative-territorial units - gubny that existed in Russia before the reforms of Peter I.
Jete - bandit gang.
Jude - ice in the steppe, accompanied by mass starvation death of livestock.
Discreteness of ethnic history - discontinuity of cause-and-effect relations, marking the beginning and end of any ethnogenesis.
Eucharist (Greek) - literally "grace"; the main rite of the Christian church - communion. The main rite of the Christian church is communion, one of the seven Christian sacraments, in which the bread and wine are transformed into the Body and Blood of the Lord.
Heresiarch (Greek) - Creator of a doctrine that deviates from the dogmas of the church and is condemned by the church.
Hierarch (Greek) - The highest clergyman; in Orthodoxy, a bishop.
Ilkhan (Mong.) - Khan of a country conquered by the Mongols and located within the Mongol ulus.
Imperative of behavior - principles of the attitude of the collective toward the individual; the dominance of these or those principles determines the stereotype of the behavior of the ethnos, associated with a particular phase of ethnogenesis.
Incubation (latent) period - part of the rising phase from the moment of the passionary impulse to the emergence of ethnos as a new ethno-social system.
Insurgent - participant of the rebellion, insurgent.
The Greek word for "isikhia" is a special kind of inner prayer by which silent monks (isikhasti) observed the so-called Pharaoh's light. The Light of Favor was considered to be a non-material emanation of the Holy Spirit.
Historical destiny is a chain of events causally linked by their inner logic.
Kapishche - a place of pagan worship.
Kinovia (Greek) - a monastery with a coenobitic charter.
Cleric - a clergyman, a member of the clergy - a community of ministers of the church.
Complimentary - a subconscious sense of mutual sympathy and community of people, determining the division into "their own" and "others.
Conviviality - a group of people with a single characteristic life and family ties; an inferior element in the ethnic hierarchy.
Consortium - a group of people united by a common historical destiny.
Kurultai (Mong.) - an assembly of representatives of the entire people-army to elect a khan or other major decisions.
Konung (Scand.) - a prince.
Kuntush - Polish men's outerwear.
Legatus - an envoy of the Pope, who performs special assignments.
The logic of events - the cause-and-effect relationships between events, determining the further course of events themselves.
Magnate - in Poland and Hungary: a wealthy nobleman, capable of pursuing a policy, sufficiently independent of the royal power.
World-perception: a person's attitude, fixed by consciousness, toward ideal values and the material world.
Negative attitude - an attitude towards ideal values and the material world, and it manifests itself in a tendency to simplify ethnic systems, (deconstruct it).
The positive - an attitude toward ideal values and the material world, which manifests itself in a striving for the complication of ethnic systems, (build on it).
Murza (Tatar) is a nobleman.
Navarh (Greek) - a navigator, commander of a squadron, fleet. The navy.
The noyon (Mong.) is the ruler of a clan, usually equal in dignity to a prince.
Nukhur/nuker (Mong.) - a druzhinnik (bodyguard).
Okolnichiy - in the Russian state in XIII-XVII centuries: one of the highest boyar ranks, court position.
Passionaries - people whose passionary impulse is greater than the instinct of self-preservation.
Passionarity (as a characteristic of behavior) is an excess of biochemical energy of living matter, which manifests itself in people's ability to overstretch. (The will to-do).
The "passionate impulse" is a behavioral impulse with a direction opposite to the instinct of personal and species' preservation.
A passionate impulse is a "micro-mutation" that causes increased absorption of biochemical energy in a population. A biochemical energy from the environment that causes new ethnic systems to emerge.
Paterik - a collection of stories about the lives of Christian ascetics.
Population: a set of freely mating individuals, including humans, inhabiting a specific territory for a number of generations.
Polespolitoye ruchie - In Poland: the noblemen's militia, assembled by the king.
Princesus - in Ancient Rome from the first century A.D.: the first of the senators, who concentrated in his hands the fullness of state power.
Rada (Ukr.) - people's assembly, council.
Rahdonit (Persian.) - literally "he who knows the way"; a Jew or Sogdian who was engaged in trade on the Great Caravan Way.
Rhetoric is an ethnic system in a state of homeostasis.
Rokosh - in Poland: a rebellion of gentry against the power of the king.
Sardar (Pers.) - officer.
Serdyuk (Ukr.) - a Cossack from the Hetman's personal guard.
Synodik - a list of names of the deceased prepared for church commemoration. Displacement - disruption of the course of ethnogenesis due to external influences.
Starshinha - the common name of the leaders of the Cossack troops.
The term "the" is used to describe the relationship between a person and an ethnic group.
The term "stereotype" refers to the specific rules and standards of behavior of members of an ethnic system, transmitted to the offspring through learning.
Stol - in Rus: a throne, reign.
Storozhi: in Russia in the XV-XVI centuries: border observation posts.
Stratigus (Greek): commander, commander in chief.
Subpassionaries - people whose passionary impulse is less than the instinct of self-preservation.
Sub-ethnos - an ethnic system that is a subsystem of an ethnos.
Super-ethnos is an ethnic system consisting of several ethnoses that have emerged in the same landscape region, and manifesting itself in history as a mosaic entity.
Schismatic - in Western Europe in the IX-XIV centuries: an adherent of the Orthodox Church.
Temnik - a commander, who was at the head of 10 thousand soldiers in the Mongolian army.
Tumen (Mong.) - the unit of 10 thousand men in the Mongolian army. (Russian: darkness).
Thousander - a commander at the head of a thousand soldiers in the Mongolian army.
Ulema - in the Muslim world: a scholar, theologian and jurist.
Ulus (Mong.) - camp; in a broad sense, a country or region under unified administration.
Ushkuynik - in Rus in the 14th century: a participant in plundering campaigns.
The phase of ethnogenesis is a clearly fixed stage in the development of an ethnos characterized by a certain level of passionate tension and a corresponding stereotype of people's behavior; there are six phases.
The rise phase is a phase characterized by a steady increase in the level of passionary tension of the system as a result of a passionate push.
The acmatic phase is the phase that comes after the ascension phase and is characterized by the maximum level of passionary tension for a given system.
Nadolok - a phase characterized by a sharp decrease in the level of passionary tension after the acmatic phase.
Inertial phase - a phase characterized by a gradual decrease in the level of passionarial tension after the breakdown phase.
The phase of obscuration is a phase characterized by a decrease in the level of passionary tension below the level of homeostasis; either the ethnos disappears as a system or it transforms into a relic.
The memorial phase is a phase that occurs after the phase of obscuration, when individual members of the ethnos still retain their cultural tradition.
Chambul (Tatar) - mounted detachment.
Shanyu - a title of the Hun's military leader.
Ethnic history - consequences of ethnogenesis and ethnic contacts recorded by sources.
Ethnic system - a community of people united by worldview and stereotype of behaviour.
Ethnic traditions - a combination of behavioural standards, transmitted through the mechanism of conditioned reflexes.
Ethnic substratum: the original ethnic components that integrate as a result of a passionate push into a new ethnos.
Ethnogenesis - the process of emergence, development and disappearance of ethnic groups.
Ethnology - a geographical science that studies ethnogenesis in a historical epoch.
Ethnos is a naturally formed collective of people based on an original stereotype of behavior.
The ethnic group of people who exist as a system that opposes other similar systems based on a sense of complimentarity.
Yanychar (Turkish), literally "new army"; in the Ottoman Empire in the 14th and 18th centuries: an infantryman forcibly recruited into troops in conquered territories.
Yarlik (Mong.): a document issued by a Mongol khan certifying the right of a local ruler to hold a position.
Yasak (Tatar) - annual in-kind tribute nester
By Г. V. Aksenova
Dictionary A
Abel is, according to the Old Testament, the second son of Adam and Eve. He was murdered by his brother Cain. The Christian Church considers him a first martyr.
Autocephaly (Greek for "self," "head") is an independent, self-governing Orthodox church.
Admiral (from ar. "amir al" [bahr] - "lord at" [sea]) - the highest rank (rank) in the navy. It is the name of the commander of a group or a combination of ships: squadron, flotilla, fleet, as well as the entire naval forces of the country.
Admiralty is the center of military shipbuilding. The Admiralty appeared in Russia under Peter the Great. The main Admiralty, founded by Peter the Great in 1704 as a shipyard, was located on the left bank of the Neva River in St. Petersburg. Between 1704 and 1844 it was here that ships for the Russian Navy were built, and then the main building of the Main Admiralty housed the naval administration. In 1695-1711 the Admiralty was also the main building of the Admiralty. Admiralty was also in Voronezh. Admiralty also existed in Sevastopol, Nikolaev and Kronstadt.
The alphabet (or alphabet) (from the names of the first two letters of the Slavic alphabet "az" and "buki") - 1) a system or a set of written signs (letters), arranged in a particular, traditionally established order and reflecting the individual sounds of a particular language; 3) the simplest forms, the basic elements of something, any knowledge, for example, ABC, Morse code, ABC truths; 4) as a proper name - one of the books published by the first printer Ivan Fedorov in 1574, "The ABCs of the alphabet. The alphabet writing is named so called sound writing, as its symbols designate the individual sounds of speech or phonemes. Historically the alphabet (in this first sense) first appeared in the most ancient alphabetic-sound systems, such as Phoenician, Ugaritic, Aramaic, Egyptian. Greek, Latin, Russian, Arabic and other writing systems are also alphabetic. Two Slavonic-Russian alphabets have survived to our day: Glagolitic and Cyrillic, that differ greatly in the form of the letters. One can get an idea of the order of letters of Slavic alphabet from "Alphabetical prayer", composed by Constantine the Philosopher in the form of acrostic, that has reached our days only in the 14th century manuscripts. During the centuries of its existence the Cyrillic alphabet has undergone certain changes in the alphabetic-letter composition. First of all, the Old Russian scribes did not use "yus big" and "yus big iotated", which were used to denote nasal sounds in the Old Slavic language. Due to the change in the script in the 17th century the letters "Y" and "Ya" appeared. In the 18th century there were a number of state reforms that changed the structure of the alphabet. They were Peter's reforms of 1707-1710; reforms of the Academy of Sciences in 1735, 1738 and 1758; the Soviet reform of 1917-1918. The consequence of the reform of Peter I was the production of the first set of Russian civil script and the exclusion of the letters "yus minor", "psy" and "omega" from it. Reform of the Academy of Sciences in 1735 excluded "xi", "izhitza", "zelo" and legalized the use of "y". The reform of 1738 unified the spelling of the letter "i" with a dot (i). And the reform of 1758 restored the use of "i". The letter "y" was first used in 1797 by N.M. Karamzin. The Soviet reform of 1917-1918 excluded from the use the letters "žitza", "i", "fita" and "yat".
Alanes (Alans) - nomadic Iranian-speaking tribes. From the 1st century A.D. they lived in the Azov Sea region and the Caucasian foothills. Alans are the ancestors of modern Ossetians.
The altar (Latin for "elevated place", "high") is the most important (eastern) part of a Christian temple. The altar is also a table ("throne") on which the sacrament of the transformation of bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ is performed.
Altyn (tat. - "gold") is an ancient Russian small coin, widespread in the Moscow state. Altyn equaled three kopecks.
Amvon - an elevated place in the temple, from which the Gospel is read and sermons are preached.
Anatolia (Greek for "east") was the ancient name for the peninsula of Asia Minor. In the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire this name was assigned to a province in western Asia Minor with its center in the city of Kutahya.
Anathema (Greek) - curse, excommunication.
Ants (from the Greek "antai") - a union of Slavic tribes in the IV-VII centuries, who lived in the forest-steppe between the Dnieper and Dniester rivers and to the East of the Dnieper. The Ants are mentioned in the works of Byzantine and Gothic writers: Procopius of Caesarea, Jordan and others. According to these authors, the Ants used a common language with other Slavic tribes and had similar customs and beliefs.
Apostle (Greek: "messenger") - Each of the twelve disciples of Jesus Christ, sent by him to preach the Holy Doctrine. The apostles were brothers Peter (Simon) and Andrew, brothers James the Elder and John the Theologian, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew the publican, Thomas, James the son of Alphaeus, Thaddeus, Simon the Zealot, and Judas Iscariot.
Arianism is a trend in Christianity in the fourth and sixth centuries that was condemned as heresy by Ecumenical Councils in 325 and 381. It was initiated by the priest Arius of Alexandria. Arius and his followers rejected one of the main tenets of the Christian faith, the oneness of God-the-Father and God-the-Son. According to Arius, Christ as a creature of God the Father, and is a being inferior to Him.
Archangel (Greek for "senior angel") is the highest angelic rank. In the Orthodox religion there are three archangels: Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael.
Archbishop (Greek: "senior overseer") - a spiritual rank of a clergyman in the Orthodox Church.
Hierarch (Greek - "senior priest") - a common name for the highest ranks of the black clergy (monks) in the Orthodox Church hierarchy.
Archimandrite (Greek) - in the Orthodox Church: the rank of abbot of a large male monastery or rector of a religious school.
Arshin (Turk.) - a measure of length, used in Russia since the XVI century and is equal to 16 versts (71.12 cm), the same as the length of the arm from the shoulder or free step of man.
Assembly (fr. - "meeting") - a dance evening, a ball in the highest society of St. Petersburg under Peter I. Assemblies were arranged according to the European model, with invitations to foreign ambassadors, sailors and merchants.
The Assyrians were the ancient people who established the state of Assyria in the 14th century B.C. on the territory of the Northern Mesopotamia of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (present-day Northern Iraq). The Assyrians, a militant nation, waged continuous war with neighboring peoples, brutally oppressing them. In 605 BC the Assyrian Empire was destroyed by the armies of Media and Babylonia, which united against it.
Ataman is an elected leader of an army or a separate detachment of Cossacks.
Attila (?-453) - the leader of the Huns, who led devastating campaigns in the Eastern Roman Empire, Gaul and Northern Italy.
Mount Athos is a mountain on a peninsula in the Aegean Sea, in present-day Greece. Several Orthodox churches were built here in the early centuries of Christian monasteries, including the Russian Panteleimon Monastery. Mount Athos became a place of pilgrimage for Orthodox Christians.
Б
Barmas are an important element of the ceremonial dress of Byzantine emperors, Moscow tsars and princes. It is a broad shoulder strap, decorated with gold embroidery and precious stones. The baskak - a representative of the Mongol khan in the conquered Russian lands in the second half of the XIII - early XIV centuries; a trusted person, an official of the Mongol khan, who was in charge of collecting tribute. The baskaks had large military detachments at their disposal.
Basma (Turk. - "imprint", another name - "paizza") - 1) metal, made of gold or silver, a plate or a wooden plaque with the image of the khan, the Mongols served as a sign of confirmation of the will of the Khan and the trust; 2) A picture of khan made in the form of a human figure.
Bashkirs (self-name - "Bashkort") - people living in the territories along the banks of the Volga and in the South Urals. The first mention of Bashkirs is dated IX-X centuries. In 1557 Bashkirs joined voluntarily the Russian state.
White Russia - this name appeared under Ivan III for the first time. The word "white" means "great".
Belopashtsy in the Moscow state: the inhabitants of the so-called "white" lands, which belonged to the largest monasteries, boyars or landlords, whose "arable land" was exempt from the payment of state taxes (duties).
Bely Gorod - in the 16th-17th centuries: the name of the central historical district of Moscow, which originated from the name of the "white" (i.e. not taxed by the state) lands that were located there. The White City fortress wall with towers and gates was built by architect Fedor Kon in 1585-1593. In the XVIII century the wall was dismantled.
Berbers - a group of peoples (Kabylie, Tuareg, Reef, etc.) living in North Africa, Central and Western Sudan.
Berendeys (Bayandurs) - nomadic Turkic tribe, related to the Thors and allied to them. They came to Rus together with the Oguz Torks and Pechenegs, and received lands in the Porossia, in the upper reaches of the Ros River. Their vezhas (nomads) were placed around the Russian city of Rostovets. In 1177 there were already six small Berendeys towns here. Of their existence we know exactly from the information of the Russian chronicle, which tells of a sudden attack of the great Polovtsian horde on the Ros area that year, which took and ruined these Berendeysk towns, but ignominiously retreated from the well fortified Rostovets.
Bible (from the Greek "biblia" - "book") - Holy Scripture, the books of the Old and New Testament. In theology, the concept of "Bible" is interpreted as "books written by the Spirit of God through men sanctified by God. The books of the Bible were written at different times, some before Christ's birth and some after. Therefore, the former are the books of the Old Testament, the latter are the books of the New Testament. There are 22 sacred books of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges and Ruth, the First and Second Books of Kings, the Third and Fourth Books of Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, the Sixteen Prophets. In addition to these, the Orthodox Bible contains extra-canonical books that are not in Hebrew: The Prophet Baruch, The Wisdom of Solomon, The Book of Tobit, The Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach; the three Maccabees. The Books of the New Testament are 27. The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John are the definitive, i.e., the basis of the New Testament.
The biosphere is the region of active life encompassing the lower atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the upper part of the Earth's lithosphere. The term was first introduced in 1875 by E. Süss. The doctrine of the biosphere as an active shell of the Earth was created in 1926 by V. I. Vernadsky.
Annunciation (Greek, Latin for "proclamation") is a bicentennial feast that falls on March 25 (April 7), the initial moment of God's incarnation. According to the Gospel, the Archangel Gabriel, sent by God to the Virgin Mary in Nazareth, Galilee, tells her that she will have a son, Jesus Christ, who will be the Messiah and the Son of God.
A bogatyr is a strong and courageous man of great height and sturdiness; a warrior distinguished by unusual strength, daring, courage and intelligence; a hero of Russian byliny.
The feasts of the Theotokos are feast days, on which the Church remembers the most important events of the life of the Most Holy Lady: Annunciation, Dormition, Nativity of the Theotokos and Presentation of the Theotokos to the Temple. All these feasts are considered to be great feasts, or Bicentennial feasts, because of their importance.
Boyarin - 1) in Ancient Rus: a senior member of the princely squadron. Boyars served the prince of their own free will, so they were free to go from one prince to another. For the service they received the income from the part of the prince's possessions; 2) the highest rank among the "servants of the Fatherland. The rank of boyarina granted the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma, was the highest dumny rank.
Brander - a vessel loaded with combustible, flammable materials. In the olden days such vessels were designed to set fire to enemy ships.
Bunchuk - a Cossack army regalia (a sign of hetman or ataman power), a shaft with a metal ball or point, strands of horse hair and two silver tassels. It was a symbol of power of the Turkish pashas, Polish and Ukrainian hetmans and atamans of the Russian Cossack troops in the XV-XVIII centuries.
The Burtasians - an association of tribes that inhabited the Middle and Lower Volga region in the V-XI centuries. In the VII century, the Burtats came under the rule of the Khazar Khaganate, then the Kievan Rus.
В
Vandals - an ancient Germanic tribe that conquered part of the Roman Empire and subjected Rome to defeat and sacking.
Barbarian - a foreigner who speaks an incomprehensible language, an ignorant, rude and cruel person.
Varyagi-russ - Old Russian name for the peoples and tribes that lived on the shores of the Varangian (Baltic) Sea. Hired teams of Varangians were in the service of Russian princes. Rurik, the founder of the Old Russian state and the founder of the Rurik dynasty of princes in Russia, was also a Viking. Viking generally means brigand or pirate.
Varangian Sea - the ancient name of the Baltic Sea, on the shores of which lived a tribe of Vikings.
The nobleman is a rich man, who had power and took part in the government of the country.
The Hungarians (the Black Ugric) were a people of Finno-Ugric origin, who were nomads in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea coast in the 8th-10th centuries. After the war with Pechenegs, the Hungarians invaded Central Europe, defeated the Slavic Great Moravian state at the end of IX century and settled on its lands - the territory of modern Hungary. In the history of Rus, the Hungarians did not play a special role. Only once mentioned by the chronicler: "In the summer of 6406 (894). Went Ugry by Kiev city, which is now called Ugorskaya, and came to the Dnieper, and became vezhas: they pastured as now Cumans. And coming from the east, they streamed through the high mountains, which are called Ugrian, and began to make war with the Volokhos and Slavs who lived there. For here before the Slavs sat here, and then the Slavic land was taken by the Volohs. After that the Ugrians drove Volohi and settled with the Slavs, conquering them.
Vendids (Venets) are the Indo-European tribes. At the turn of the 1st millennium there were three groups of Venids: on the Brittany Peninsula in Gaul, in the Po River valley and on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. From the 6th century onwards, as Slavic tribes settled on the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea, they assimilated the new settlers. Since then, the Slavs themselves have sometimes been called Venetians, or Venetians. Jordanes, a 6th century author, believed that the Slavs used to be called "Veneads" or "Wendes".
The Visigoths were a Germanic tribe, the western branch of the Goths. In the early 5th century they invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 410. In 418 they established the Kingdom of Toulouse in southern Gaul, and in V century they conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula.
Whole - 1) a small rural settlement among the Slavs, a village; 2) one of the Finnish tribes, who lived in the Ladoga and Belozero regions, ancestors of the modern Veps.
The Old Testament - the first section of the Bible, which, along with the New Testament (Gospel), is the sacred canon for Orthodox Christians.
Veche (from the word "vet" - "council") is a people's assembly in Russia, a gathering of all the inhabitants of a city and its surroundings. In Russia Veche as the highest body of power for the longest time remained in Novgorod.
Vira - in Ancient Rus: a pecuniary penalty for the murder of a free man. A variation of this punishment was the so-called "wild vira", which was paid by the community if the murderer, who committed the crime on its land, was not found.
Vogulichi (Vogulys), the Russian name for the Siberian Mansi people who lived on the Ob River and its tributaries.
Voivodship - the main administrative-territorial unit in Poland.
Volost - region, territory, part of the state possessed by a single person, a princely appanage.
Volhv (Volkhov) - a wise man, sorcerer, wizard, healer in the ancient Slavs.
Volos (Veles) - according to Slavic mythology, the god protecting cattle. He was called "the cattle god". Historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, based on the fact that the term "cattle" means "money", opined that Veles was the god of wealth and trade.
Eastern Slavs - one of the three components of the once united Slavic community, ancestors of modern Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. It is considered that traces of Slavonic life and activity are preserved in the monuments of Volynets, Korchak, Romensko-Borshevskaya and some other archaeological cultures. The ethnical features of the East Slavs were formed in the VI-IX centuries as a result of the mixing of the Slavic tribes that had come here from the Vistula and the Danube banks with the Baltic, Finno-Ugric and Alanian tribes. According to Byzantine and Gothic writers of the 6th-7th centuries, there was a large Slavic tribal association between the Dniester and the Dnieper. Cities sprang up in the lands of the East Slavs at the end of the 8th and 9th centuries. Kiev, Polotsk, Ladoga, and Novgorod became the largest of them. The chronicler, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years, knew of 13 Slavic tribal groups that inhabited the territory bounded by Lake Peipsi and Lake Ladoga in the north, the Carpathian Mountains in the west, the forests near the Oka in the east, and the Black Sea in the south. In the Middle Dnieper area and along the Rosa, Stugna, Teterev and Irpen rivers lived the Polans. The basis of this ethnos was formed by local tribes assimilated by the Slavs, whose history goes back to the pre-Scythian time. Kiev, which existed already in the V century, was the main city of the land of Polans; afterwards appeared Rodnia, Belgorod, Vyshgorod and Kanev. To the north-west of the land of Polans - on the right bank of the river Pripyat and its right tributaries Horyn and Alo - lived Drevlyans. The largest cities of the Drevlyans were Iskorosten, Ovruch (Vruchy) and Ushesk. In the West the possessions of Drevlyanis bordered on settlements of -
The Drevlyans (Buzhan), descendants of the Dulebs. They lived on both banks of the Bug and at the sources of the Pri- 5. The center of this land was the city of Cherven. The Dregovichi inhabited the area between the rivers Prypyat and Zapadnaya Dvina. Their main towns were Turov, Klichesk (Kletsk) and Sluchesk (Slutsk). It is believed that Dregovichi owes its name ("dryagva" - "swamp") to the swampy woodland. On the left bank of the Dnieper, along the Desna, Seimu and Sula rivers, northerners lived. The main cities of this region were Chernigov, Kursk, Novgorod-Seversky. In the neighborhood, on the river Sozh and its tributaries, lived Radimichs, who built the cities of Gomii (Gomel), Chichorsk, Vshchizh on the Desna, Vorob'in, Ropeisk and others. The land of the Radimichi is distinguished by female adornments - seven-armed temple rings of bronze or silver, found by archaeologists only here and popular among the inhabitants of the land of Radim (the legendary progenitor of this tribe). Vyatichi is a Slavic tribe that lived along the Oka and the Upper Don. In the IX-X centuries, the Vyatichi paid tribute to the Khazars. During the campaign of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich in 964-966 they were liberated from the power of the Khazars, and their territories were annexed to the Russian state. Vyatichi occupied the territory in the basin of the Oka River. In the 9th-10th centuries they paid tribute to the Khazars. In the land of Vyatichi were built cities of Koltesk, Dedoslav and Nerinsk. In the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina lived Krivichi. Their largest cities were Polotsk, Smolensk, Izborsk and Pskov. The northernmost East Slavic tribe was the Slovenes (Ilmen Slavs), who lived on Lake Ilmen, along the Volkhov, Lovati, Msta rivers, and in the upper reaches of the Mologa River. The ancient cities of the land of the Slovenes were Staraya Russa and Novgorod. The southern outskirts of the East Slavic world were occupied by the Ulychi and Tiberian tribes. The Ulics lived in the Lower Dnepr, on the river Southern Bug and on the Black Sea coast. Their main town was Peresechen. Remains of Tivers' towns and villages have been discovered by archaeologists in the interfluve of the Dniester and Prut rivers and at the mouth of the Danube. White Croats lived in Prikarpattya.
Г
Harbour - a part of the water area sheltered from waves, winds and currents; a place for anchorage, repair and wintering of ships.
Gagauz - people culturally and ethnically close to Bulgarians, living in Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and Moldova.
Galician land is a southern Russian principality, the capital of which was the city of Galich. There was also another Galich, located in the principality of Vladimir-Suzdal.
Guards - a selected and privileged part of the army. Such units existed in the armies of almost all states, but the name itself first appeared in Italy in the 12th century in relation to a select unit for guarding the banner. In Russia the Guard was created in 1687 by Peter I of his so-called Poteshny regiments of the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments. Officially these regiments received the title of the Guards in 1700 after the battle of Narva. Later some other regiments of the Russian army also received the title of the Life Guards.
Guelphs and Ghibellines - political movements that existed in Italy in the 10th-15th centuries in connection with the struggle between the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy. The Guelphs supported the pope, while the Ghibellines were supporters of the emperor.
Geology - The complex of sciences about the composition, structure, and history of the earth's crust and earth. The term itself appeared in 1657; it was introduced by the Norwegian scientist M. P. Esholt. Modern geology includes stratigraphy, tectonics, regional geology, mineralogy, petrography, lithology and geochemistry, and the study of minerals.
Hercules is the Latin form of the name of Hercules, the famous ancient Greek hero, son of Zeus (ancient Roman Jupiter), who accomplished 12 great feats. After his death, Hercules was taken to Olympus and betrothed to the goddess of eternal youth, Geba. The cult of Hercules was extremely popular in ancient Greece and later in ancient Rome.
Duke is one of the highest titles of nobility. In the Middle Ages in the established in Europe feudal hierarchical system dukes took second place after the king.
A duchy is a feudal possession of a duke, a representative of the most titled nobility; in some cases it is a sovereign (independent) monarchical state.
Hetman - a leader, head of an army in some Slavic countries (Czech Republic, Poland, Ukraine) and the Zaporozhye Cossacks; from 1648 - ruler of Ukraine and head of the Cossack army. Head - a military (streletsky, stanitsa siege heads) or administrative
Head - the name of a military post (streletsky and stanitsa siege heads) or an administrative post (customs and tavern heads) in the Moscow State of the XVI-XVII centuries. A shrouded hat - a high hat for the manufacture of which fur from the throat of a sable was used. This hat was one of the signs of belonging to the boyar class.
Goths - the East German nation. In the first centuries of our era, the Goths inhabited the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, in the lower reaches of the Vistula River. Having begun migrating south and south-east from the Baltic at the end of the 2nd century, at the beginning of the 3rd century they reached the shores of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. At the same time, the Goths created a legendary state on the Dnieper and then settled in the Crimea and the Azov Sea. In the 4th century they converted to Christianity and created a huge kingdom headed by their leader Hermanarich. The Huns, who came to Europe, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Goths, forcing them partly to retreat to Europe (Visigoths) and partly to join the vast Hunnish nomadic empire. The Goths were implacable and cruel enemies of the Slavic peoples.
"Greek fire" is a complex mixture of incendiary mixture that cannot be extinguished with water. It was considered a formidable weapon of the Greeks. Greek Kalinnik's invention, which served his homeland well in the fight against the Arabs, was used against Russian ships during Prince Igor's campaign to Constantinople. "Live fire" as nicknamed in Russia new weapon of Byzantines, has burnt many ships Igor and has forced it to recede.
Guba - 1) territorial district in the Russian state XVI-XVII centuries; 2) Pomor name of the sea bays and bays far into the land.
A gubernia was the highest unit of administrative division and local structure in the Russian Empire, with clearly defined borders. It was governed by a government official, a governor, appointed by the emperor. In Russia, the division of the country into provinces was introduced by the decree of Peter I in 1708.
Huns - a union of Asian tribes. In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Huns created a powerful nomadic empire in Central Europe. Defeated by the Chinese, whose lands they devastated by their raids, the Huns in the 70s of the IV cent. moved to the West. Led by their leader Balamir, in 375 they subdued the Alans and defeated the Goths, reaching the borders of the Roman Empire. A combined Gallo-Roman army defeated the Huns in 451 at the Fields of Catalunya near Orleans. The Slavs suffered less than other peoples allied to the Huns from this defeat. They had already firmly settled on the banks of the Danube, in Eastern Europe and approached the borders of Byzantium.
Д
Dazhbog (from the words "give" and "god") - in Slavic mythology: son of Svarog, the god of the sun (heavenly fire).
Tribute (tribute) - a tax levied on the population of subjugated or subjugated lands. Moneygazer - the obsolete name of the money-maker, the maker of coins.
Denga - Russian silver coin of the XIV-XVIII centuries. From a hryvnia of silver, equal to 48 gold coins, 200 money (Denga) were minted. (200 money (Denga) was a name of a coin.)
Money - an old name of a money-maker, who minted 200 money, (Denga) which made up the Moscow ruble.
Orb - a golden orb with a crown and a cross on top. In the Moscow State and the Russian Empire the orb served as a symbol of monarchic power.
Dytynets' - an inner fortification in the form of towers and walls in the ancient Russian town, erected to protect the residence of a prince or his deputy and church buildings. The word "Dytynets'" comes from the name of the prince's guards - "adolescents" or "children".
Dorostol is the name of the Bulgarian city of Silistra until the end of the XIV century.
Drevlyan - one of the large Slavic tribes, who settled on the right bank of the Dnieper in Polesie. In the west, the lands of Drevlyans reached the river Slucha. In Russian history the most famous act of this tribe was execution (murder) of Kievan prince Igor while collecting exorbitant tribute. Igor's widow princess Olga severely punished Drevlyans, destroying all nobility of the tribe and destroying their cities, including Iskorosten - the main city of the Drevlyan land.
The word "druzhina" means a prince's warriors (druzhinniki) and bodyguards; the prince's mounted army. The word "druzhina" comes from the Slavonic "druzha" ("friend"), the original meaning of which is "companion", "comrade in a military campaign".
Dumnyi nobleman - a rank that appeared in the second half of the 16th century. Dumnyi noblemen participated in the work of the Boyar Duma, managed the orders, performed court and military duties.
Dyak (Greek - "servant") - in Ancient Russia: the scribe of the prince's chancellery; in the Moscow state: an important official in the Prikaz (office) - the body of the country's government.
A deacon is a lower clergyman, or a clerk in a court of law. A deacon is a lower clerical rank or ministry, an assistant to a priest in the ministry.
Inch (Goll, "thumb") - Russian dimensional unit of length, equal to 2.54 cm.
Е
Gospel (from the Greek "evaggelios" - "good news," "good news") - a common name for the books of the New Testament, setting forth the "good news" of the life and teachings of Christ, who appeared for the salvation of mankind. The four books of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John comprise the Gospel. The Gospel of Matthew, who was a tax collector, is said to be the earliest. According to tradition he wrote his Gospel in Hebrew, because it was intended for his fellow tribesmen. The second Gospel was written by Mark (John Mark in his youth). He recounted what he had heard from the Apostle Peter about the earthly life of Jesus Christ. The third Gospel was written by Luke, who was an associate of the Apostle Paul during his missionary work (Luke was one of the 70 disciples). The fourth Gospel was written in Ephesus by John the Theologian, the "beloved disciple" of Jesus Christ. In addition to the four canonical Gospels, there are also apocryphal texts. The most famous in Russia were the "First Gospel of James" and the Gospel of Nicodemus (the secret disciple of Christ).
For church and monastic services, the Gospel texts are presented in a sequence of readings for each day of the week during the year and for Holy Week (the full Gospel aprakos) or for feasts and Sabbaths and Sundays (the short Gospel aprakos). There is also an Explanatory Gospel and a Teachable Gospel. The most famous interpretations of the Four Gospels are those of the church fathers: St. John Chrysostom and St. Basil the Great, as well as of Theophanes the Hermit (Govorov). The earliest translation of the Gospel into Slavic was done by the Slavic enlighteners, Cyril and Methodius, in 863. The earliest surviving copy of the Old Russian Gospel is the Gospel of Anna Yaroslavna of Reims (the 1940s), created in the publishing houses of Yaroslav the Wise. Among the most famous ancient Russian scrolls
The first Russian printed Gospel was published in 1553 on the initiative and with the participation of Metropolitan Makarii. Bishop (Greek - "observer") - the highest rank of clergy in the Orthodox Church; the head of a church-administrative unit (diocese).
Ж
Altar (churches) - elevation of various kinds for offering sacrifices to the deity according to the rites of faith. In the Orthodox Church, an altar is a consecrated table on the left side of the altar, used for preparing a bloodless sacrifice on it. In ancient times it was a place near the altar, where prosphora were taken during the proskomidiya.
Resident - a district nobleman, who temporarily lived with the sovereign and was on military service.
Zhitye people - in ancient Novgorod: a special class of citizens, who occupied an intermediate position between the local boyars and commoners - "black people".
Zmud - Russian and Polish name of the tribe Zhemaites.
Westernizing is one of the trends of social and political thought in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. - advocated the development of Russia according to the Western European model, criticized the theory of official nationality, serfdom and autocracy.
Commandment - religious and moral precept; strictly binding rule of conduct.
Zaporizhian Sich - a military association of the Dnieper Cossacks, which existed in the 16th-18th centuries behind the Dnieper rapids. The name comes from the name of the main Cossack stronghold, the Sich, which was founded on Tomakovka Island and moved first to Khortitsa Island, and then to Bazavluk Island. Until 1654 Zaporizhian Sich was a kind of Cossack "republic" with an elected head - Koshevoy ataman and an elected council - Sich Council. The Sich was divided into kunens. After Ukraine and the Zaporizhian Sich became part of Russia, the Dnieper Cossacks took part in the Russian-Turkish wars. The so-called "Old Sich" was liquidated in 1709 after the Cossacks and hetman Mazepa took the side of the Swedish King Karl XII. Cossacks who migrated to the Crimean Khanate established Alyoshkin Sich. Only in 1734 the Russian government allowed Cossacks from Alyoshkin to return to Russia and settle in the region of the mouth of the Bazavluk and Podpolnaya rivers. A "New Sich" was created there; it was liquidated by Catherine II in 1775 after a peasant revolt led by Yemelyan Pugachev was put down. Some Cossacks left for Turkey. The Black Sea Cossack Army was formed of the rest, which was later moved to Kuban.
Zastava - in Russia in the 16th-19th centuries: a guarded entrance to the city, where documents were checked and duties were collected.
Zolotnik - Russian measure of weight. It was equal to 4.26 g.
Zyryane - a small nation, who lived on the banks of the river Vychegda, which became the ancestor of the modern Komi.
И
Igumen - the abbot of an Orthodox monastery.
Jesuit - a member of the Catholic monastic order "Society of Jesus," founded in 1534 by the Spanish nobleman Ignatius Loyola to counteract the enemies of the Catholic Church. Jesuits were allowed to lead a secular life and to disregard many religious prescriptions in order to keep their membership secret. The first attempts to bring Jesuits to Russia from Lithuania were made during the Livonian War (1558-1583). Important role was played by Jesuits in the beginning of the 17th century in the organization of Polish intervention in the Time of Troubles.
Hierarch - priest.
Hieromonk - a monk in the rank of priest.
Outcasts - a category of the population of Ancient Russia in the 11th-12th centuries, peasants who left the community, the freed or bought out the serfs.
Ikon (from Greek eikon, "image", "likeness") - in the Christian Church, this term was used for pictorial images and likenesses.
This term refers to picturesque images of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints that have a sacred character and serve as a subject of religious veneration. An icon is the Church's most important Christian symbol that mysteriously contains within itself what it represents. Two kinds of symbols are represented in the icon, ratified by the Council of Trull (691-692) and set forth in Rule 82: symbols as signs and decrees which have an incomplete, allegorical, prototypical correspondence to what they represent; and symbols as images which directly represent the perfect, the truth as it reveals itself in the image. An example of this is the disclosure of the meaning of the icon of Christ the Savior in the same Rule 82: "The divine and the human, united mysteriously in the person of the Lord Jesus Christ, require the expression of this unity also in holy icons... In the icon of the Savior one must see simultaneously not only His human face, but also His divine glory as the Redeemer of the world.
The icon is created according to the canon of the Church. This canon of iconography is as immutable as the canon of sacred liturgical objects. In icons, the very set of representational means is also canonical. The image must always be only two-dimensional, because the third dimension is the dogmatic depth. A canonically correct icon should have no spatial perspective, it is characterized by the phenomenon of inverse perspective. This is due to the fact that the purpose of the icon is to depict in the greatest dimensions what has the greatest sacred, dogmatic significance. According to the canon, the play of light and shadow cannot be used in an icon, for God is light and there is no darkness in Him. The appearance of the icon goes back to the beginning of Christianity. According to the record of the church historian Eusebius, Jesus Christ Himself imprinted His image on a board with which He wiped His face. According to Eusebius, Evangelist Luke, a painter by profession, left behind several icons of the Mother of God, such as the Kazan and Smolensk icons of the Mother of God. Tertullian, Manucius Felix, Clement of Alexandria, Methodius of Tyre and others attest to the existence of the icon in the early centuries of Christianity. Since the 7th Ecumenical Council the icon became an obligatory part of the Christian cult. Byzantine icon-painting regulations had been formed by the XII century. In Russia the icon-painting canon was affirmed at the Stoglav (1551) Sobor and at the Sobor of 1667-1674.
Iconography is a type of artistic activity or the process of creating an icon by an artist (isographer) using paints and other painting materials. Iconography is guided by the tenets of the Orthodox faith, Scripture, and Tradition. The icon-painting canon is established by the Church in a conciliar manner. The iconographers have manuals for their work, specific manuals. These contain samples of drawings and technical instructions.
Iconostasis (from Greek eikon, "image", and stasis, "standing", "place of standing") in the Christian Orthodox Church: The wall (altar barrier) separating the altar from the main part of the temple, on which icons are placed in a certain order. The iconostasis as an altar wall is a symbol-sign of the separation of God and the Divine from all created things, as well as a symbol-image of the Heavenly Church headed by the Lord Jesus Christ. Paul of Florence wrote: "The altar can only be separated from the temple by visible witnesses of the invisible world, living symbols of the union of both, in other words, by holy creatures. The iconostasis is the boundary between the visible world and the invisible world, and this altar barrier is made accessible to the consciousness by the united row of saints, the cloud of witnesses that surrounds the throne of God... The iconostasis is the apparition of the saints and angels, the apparition of heavenly witnesses and above all of Our Lady and Christ Himself in the flesh - witnesses who proclaim what is beyond the flesh. In the central part of the iconostasis are the Holy Gates, a two-leaved, specially decorated door opposite the throne. To the left of the King's Gate is the northern gate, to the right is the southern (or deacon's) gate. The Archdeacons Stephen and Lawrence, or the Archangels Michael and Gabriel, or the glorified saints, or the Old Testament high priests are depicted on these doors. To the right of the Holy Gates is an image of Christ the Saviour, and immediately behind Him an image of the saint or holy event in whose name the church or its chapel is consecrated. To the left of the King's Gate is placed an image of the Mother of God. To the right and to the left are placed the icons of the most revered saints or sacred events in a given parish. Above the King's Gate is an image of the Last Supper. To the right and left of this icon, in the second row of the iconostasis, are icons of the most important Christian feasts. The third row is centered on the image of Christ the Almighty, seated in royal vestment on the throne. To his right is the Virgin Mary, to his left is John the Baptist. On either side of the Mother of God and John the Baptist are the apostles facing Christ. In the center of the fourth row of the iconostasis is the Mother of God with the Godhead. On either side of her are icons of the Old Testament righteous - the prophets, heralds of the birth of the Redeemer. In the fifth row of the iconostasis are the images of the forefathers and saints. The iconostasis is crowned with the Cross or the Cross with the Crucifix. In the center of the fifth row of the iconostasis is often the image of the Lord of hosts, God the Father, in the form of a gray-haired old man.
Inoverts - a person of a different faith.
A monk is a monk, a black man.
Isker - a town in Siberia on the Irtysh River, not far from Tobolsk. It was also called Siberia.
Islam - (ar., "obedience," "surrendering oneself [to the will of God]") is one of the most widespread religions of the world. The most widespread religion in the world, whose followers are Muslims.
Judaism - A religion that originated with the ancient Jews (Judeans) in Palestine in the first millennium B.C.
К
Cavalierguard (French for "knight of the guard") - a member of a special cavalry unit of the Russian army. Cavalerguards served as bodyguards and honorary imperial guards during coronation and other celebrations and festivities. For the first time, the cavalry guard unit was formed by Peter I in 1724 for the coronation of Catherine I. Later it was known as the Cavalergard Corps or the Life Guards Cavalergard Regiment.
Kagan (from Turkic "khakan" - "khan of khans") - a title of a supreme ruler of the steppe nomads, equal to the imperial title. The early medieval rulers of the Avars and Khazars, who established powerful states such as the Avar and Khazar Khaganates, wore the title Kagan. In the IX century the title was also used by the rulers of the Rus. In the X-XI centuries in Kievan Rus it was used along with the traditional and more common title of "prince". In the XIII-XIV centuries the title Kagan ("kaan") was used by the supreme rulers of the Mongolian state, created by Genghis Khan with the center in Karakorum.
Cossack (Turk. "daredevil") - a free man, lightly armed mounted warrior. Cossack Circle - a general meeting of Cossacks.
Treasury - a treasury, a repository of money and the most valuable things of Moscow princes and tsars; also valuables, property belonging to the state.
Treasurer - in Muscovite Russia: the keeper of the great princes' and tsars' treasury, as well as the state archive.
Cain - according to the Old Testament, the eldest son of Adam and Eve, brother of Abel. Cain was the first murderer on earth. The first murderer on earth and the first fratricide.
Kalita - A purse for money, a purse; figuratively: a hoarder.
Chancellor - the highest official in the state, the head of the government, In Russia: the highest civil rank, introduced by Peter I.
Cardinal (Latin for "chief"), in the Roman Catholic Church: one of the 70 highest ranks clergy appointed by the Pope.
Karaul (Turkic for "guard"): an armed unit appointed to guard and the most important state facilities, officials.
Carthage - an ancient city-state in northern Africa, in the vicinity of the modern city of Tunis. It was founded by the Phoenicians in 825 B.C. After the defeat in the Punic Wars with Rome (the Romans called the Carthaginians "Puni") Carthage was completely destroyed by the victors.
Kasogi - Russian name for one of the North Caucasian tribes, the ancestors of the modern Adygeans.
Catholicism (Greek for "universal", "ecumenical") - a movement in Christianity. Catholicism as a doctrine and a church organization finally took shape after the division of churches in 1054.
The priest is the monk who manages the monastery.
Caesar is the Greek form of the Latin word Caesar, the title of Roman emperors. Originally, it was the name of one of the branches of the Julii family, to which the famous commander of the ancient world, Gaius Julius Caesar, belonged.
The twisted form of the word - "Tsar" - since 1547 became the official title of the Russian sovereigns (the first among them adopted the title of Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible).
The Cimmerians were a people that inhabited vast areas of the Northern Black Sea coast in the 8th-7th centuries B.C. The Cimmerians were expelled from there by the Scythians. Fleeing from their enemies, they migrated to the Asian Minor Peninsula, where they gradually assimilated with the local population.
Cyrillic alphabet, one of the two Slavic alphabets, was created in 863 by the Constantine (Cyril) Philosopher at the behest of the Byzantine Emperor Michael and at the request of the Moravian Prince Rostislav. The name of this Slavic alphabet comes from the monastic name of its creator. According to the extant manuscripts of the 11th century, Cyrillic alphabet had 43 letters, 24 of them were borrowed from the Greek alphabet. This is because there was no need to invent new letters for sounds that are the same in Slavic and Greek. But the Greek alphabet lacks a number of letters that correspond to some of the Slavic sounds, so Constantine added another 14 letters to the 24 Greek ones, and later his pupils (Horazd, Clemence, Savva, Naum, and Angelar) added five more. All in all, the Slavic alphabet had 43 letters. The graphics of the Cyrillic letters created to represent the sounds of the Slavic speech, is related to the Glagolitic alphabet and indicates the continuity of the letter graphics. The letters of the Cyrillic alphabet had a numerical meaning in addition to the sonic one. Nine letters were used to denote units (from 1 to 9), nine - for tens (from 10 to 90) and nine - for hundreds (from 100 to 900). To show that a letter represented a number, a grading system was used: the letter was highlighted on both sides with dots, and a titlo was placed over it. In Cyrillic alphabet only letters borrowed from the Greek alphabet had a numerical value. The exceptions were numbers 6, 90, and 900.
A choir is a place in the temple where the church choir is located.
Klobuk - a tall monk's hat with a veil, black for ordinary monks, white for metropolitans.
Prince - the leader of an army and ruler in the Slavs and ancient Russia.
Prince-Kesar - a title granted by Peter I to his closest associate Fyodor Yuryevich Romodanovsky, head of the Transfiguration Prikaz (office), which during the frequent absences of the young Tsar actually ruled Russia.
Collegium - the central state institution in charge of any branch of government in the Russian Empire in the 18th century. Collegia were introduced by Peter I instead of the Orders. There were 12 collegia: the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, the Military Collegium, the Admiralty Collegium, the Chamber Collegium, the State - Contor Collegium, the Audit Collegium, the Justice Collegium, the Berg Collegium, the Collegium of Manufactures, the Commercial Collegium, the Vachin Collegium, the Chief Magistrate. Each Collegium consisted of the so-called "presence", including the president, vice-president, four advisors, four assessors and a secretary, as well as a staff of officials and clerks. Collegiums were abolished in the early 19th century after establishment of the Ministries.
Kondia is the name of the lands along the banks of the Konda River in Transbaikalia (Buryatia).
Constantine Porphyrogenitus (905-959) - Byzantine emperor, the author of historical works containing information about Russia and Byzantium in the 10th century.
Constantine the Great (c. 285-337) was a Roman emperor who actively supported Christianity. In 324-330 he founded a new capital, Constantinople, in place of Byzantium.
A groom - one of the main court officials in the Moscow State of the XV-XVII centuries, head of the Stable Department. He was in charge of the Tsar's herds of horses, pastures and a large staff of court grooms.
Kopeck - the unit of Russian money account. A hryvnia has ten kopecks, a ruble has one hundred. A kopeck is two money or four polushkas.
Koran (ar. - "reading") - the holy book of Muslims, a collection of sermons, ceremonial and legal regulations, incantations, prayers, stories and parables, pronounced by the Prophet Muhammad in Mecca and Medina.
Korsun - Old Russian name for the Greek city of Chersonesos, founded in the 5th century BC on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula (now within Sevastopol).
The Cowi was the largest of the small nomadic Turkic hordes that were part of the Black Klobuk tribes. The Koui were probably one of the hordes separated from the Türkic people. What distinguished them from the other Rus steppe servants was that the nomads of this horde were located not in the Porossia, but in the Chernigov princedom, which also bordered on the steppe. In 1185 under the banner of prince Igor Svyatoslavich they were part of the Russian army which marched against the Cumans. This campaign is well known from the great work of ancient Russian literature "The Word about Igor's regiment".
Nomads - peoples and tribes, often changing their place of residence, i. e. migrating from place to place.
A nomad's camp, a place of permanent (summer and winter) dwelling of nomads.
Kraychiy (kravchiy) - a court rank at the court of Moscow tsars, a boyar, who served food to the tsar and the tsarina at the table.
Baptism is one of the most important Christian sacraments, which Orthodox Christians administer by a priest.
Epiphany (Epiphany) is a biannual feast related to the most important evangelical event - the baptism of Jesus Christ in the waters of the Jordan River by John the Baptist. The holiday is celebrated by the Orthodox Church on January 6 (19).
Krivichi, a Slavic tribe that lived in the upper Dnieper River near Smolensk and in the upper Volga River near Tver.
Cro-Magnon (from the name of Cro-Magnon Grotto in France) is a generalized name for Late Paleolithic fossils of the modern species.
Kuna is a monetary unit in Ancient Russia, which was in circulation until the beginning of the 15th c. Kuna were minted from silver. In the Kiev period of Russian history kuna was equal to 1/25 grivna. The word itself came from the name of the fur of the marten, used by the Eastern Slavs as a measure of the value of goods in trade.
Kurgan - the grave mound of the ancient Slavs and other pagan peoples.
Electoral princes in the Holy Roman Empire: the sovereigns of actually independent German states (principalities) and the king of Bohemia, who from the 13th century had the right to elect the emperor. The archbishops of Trier, Cologne and Main, the sovereigns of Saxony, Brandenburg and the Palatinate were the electors. In the 17th and 19th centuries, Bavaria, Hanover, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Kassel and Salzburg also became electoral princes.
Л
Lavra is the name of the largest Orthodox monasteries in Russia, most revered by the people, directly subordinate to the patriarch, and after the reforms of Peter I - to the Holy Synod. The Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, and the Pochaevsko-Uspensky Lavra are the most renowned monasteries.
Geographical landscape is a natural system, the main category of territorial division of the geographical shell, one of the fundamental concepts of geography and the subject of landscape studies. It is characterized by a complex structure, in which different components interact: geological basement, air masses, vegetation cover, natural territorial complexes. Land landscapes are extremely diverse. They can be classified by types (arctic, forest-steppe), classes (flat, mountainous), subclasses (lowland, piedmont, highland) and species.
Cultural landscape - geographical landscape, which was changed in the course of economical activity.
Lats - armor that protected against cold steel weapons. They consisted of a metal armour, breastplates, greaves etc. It was the most important element of a soldier's arms along with a shield and a helmet.
Legatus (Latin for "ambassador") - a personal representative of the Pope with great rights and authority.
Legion - a large military unit in ancient Rome; the name of a special military unit. The term "legion" is also used in a figurative sense as "innumerable multitude.
Livonia (from German "Livland") is the area inhabited by the Baltic tribe of Livs in the lower reaches of the Daugava and Gauja rivers. After the conquest of the Baltics by the German Crusader knights in XVII.
The Livonian Order, an independent state of chivalry, was established on the territory of Livonia which included the territories of Latvia and Estonia in the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. In the XVII century the name Livonia was replaced by the name of Livonia.
Livland (from German "Livland") is a historical region in the Baltics, on the lands of the Livonian Order (in the north of Latvia and the south of Estonia). Livland became part of the Russian Empire during the reign of Peter I.
Trapper - a court rank and position in Ancient and Medieval Russia; the person in charge of organizing the prince's and the king's hunting.
Lord (anglosax. - "keeper", "protector of bread") - a collective title of the English nobility: dukes, marquis, earls, viscounts, barons, since the XIV century. received peers (the highest nobility) of the kingdom, which together form the upper house of the British parliament - the House of Lords.
Lubesh - a city in Chernigov Region in Ukraine.
Lutherans - followers of the religious reformer Martin Luther, the founder of one of the main movements in Protestantism, which arose during the 16th century Reformation in Germany. Rejecting the complex hierarchical organization characteristic of Catholic and Protestant churches, Lutherans subjected their religious communities to secular authorities-the German prince-kurfürst. Lutherans rejected the veneration of icons, saints, and the need for monasticism.
М
Magister (Latin for "chief" or "teacher") - the title of the head of a knightly order (a secret association or community).
Mohammed (Mohammed) - the founder of the religion of Islam and the first community of Muslims, who lived in the last third of the 6th century to the first third of the 7th century.
Mohammedans - Muslims, followers of the Prophet Mohammed (Mohammed), the founder of Islam.
Mazdakism - the religious-philosophical doctrine, widespread in Iran and neighboring countries, which arose in the III century. It got its name after the leader of the popular movement Mazdak, who lived at the turn of the V-VI centuries. Mazdak and his followers believed that the struggle between light, good and dark, evil elements lies in the basis of the world process.
Malorossia is the official name of Ukraine and part of the southern Russian lands in the Russian Empire.
Mantle (Greek - "veil", "cloak") - a wide, long (up to the ground) garment, ceremonial attire of princes and kings.
Mars is the god of war in Roman mythology. After the accession of ancient Rome to the culture of Hellas (Ancient Greece), he was correlated with the god Ares.
Maslenitsa ("Shrovetide week") - with Orthodox Christians: a holiday on the eve of Lent.
Merja is a Finno-Ugric people, who lived in the Upper Volga region in the first millennium A.D.
Mestnichestvo was a system in the Moscow State of filling government and court positions in accordance with the origins and merits of the ancestors. It was abolished by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor of 1682.
Metrology (from the Greek metron 'measure' and logos 'science') is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies different measures (length, area, weight) in their historical development.
The Brothers of the Sword - members of the German Catholic spiritual-chivalric order "Brothers of Christ's Warriors," founded in 1202 for the purpose of seizing the Baltic lands. The name comes from the image of a red sword with a cross on the cloaks of the knights.
Mosque (from ar. "masjid" - "place of worship") - a Muslim sanctuary, a house of worship.
Mile - a unit of length, nowadays used mainly in maritime affairs. 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km; 1 English mile = 1.853 km; 1 land mile (used in the USA) = 1.609 km. The old Russian mile was 7.468 km.
Anointing is a solemn rite in the Orthodox Church, consisting in the communion of a person with divine grace by anointing him with fragrant myrrh oil. It is also the most important ceremony at the crowning of an Orthodox sovereign (king, emperor).
Metropolitan - The highest spiritual title of bishop in the Orthodox Church.
Moses - Old Testament prophet, leader and lawgiver of the Jewish people.
Monk (monk, nun) - a person living in a monastery who has taken monastic vows and who has made a vow to lead an ascetic life in accordance with the requirements of the monastic charter.
Monomakh (Greek for "one-worshipper") was the nickname of the Byzantine emperor Constantine. He was the grandfather of Russian Prince Vladimir (1053-1125), also nicknamed Monomakh.
Moravia is a historical region in Bohemia, which in ancient times was inhabited by the Celts. In the middle of I millennium the Slavs-Moravians settled there. In the IX-X centuries Moravia existed as the Great Moravia. Moravia existed as a Great Moravian state. From 1526 to 1918 it was part of the Habsburg state of Austria. The historical capital is Brno.
Mordva is a Finno-Ugric people who lived between the Oka and Middle Volga rivers in the first millennium A.D.
Mullah (ar. - "lord") - a cleric, a Muslim cleric.
Murza - the title of a noble Tatar, the leader of one of the nomadic hordes.
Muroma - the Finno-Ugric people, who in the I millennium AD lived near the Oka River.
Monsoons (ar. - "season") - steady seasonal winds, the direction of which changes to the opposite direction twice a year. The main feature of monsoon climate is abundant precipitation in summer and dry winter.
Publican - in Slavonic ecclesiastical texts: the name of a tax collector in the Roman province of Judea; a tax collector.
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The head of the local government, the ruler of the city and its surroundings, the trustee of the prince, the king.
Naryad (Old Russian) - order, internal arrangement.
The New Testament is the second section of the Bible (Holy Scripture). It includes the four canonical Gospels (from Mark, Matthew, Luke and John), the Acts of the Apostles, 21 epistles of the Apostles and the Revelation of John the Evangelist (the Apocalypse).
Nogai (Nogai people) - nomads, descendants of Turkic and Mongol tribes, who in the second half of the 13th century joined the ulus of the Golden Horde temnik Nogai, great-grandson of Jochi Khan (Genghis Khan's eldest son).
Noyon is a secular feudal lord in Mongolia.
Normans ("Nordic people") - the common name for the tribes and peoples that inhabited Scandinavia; descendants of Scandinavian settlers who established their settlements in England, Iceland, Northern France (Normandy), and Sicily.
Numismatics is an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the emergence and development of monetary systems, the history of coin production and coin hoards. The name comes from the Greek word nomisma, meaning "coin. The first coins were minted from electrum (electrum, "white gold"), a natural alloy of gold and silver. Coin production arose in the early 7th century BC in a small, but gold-rich Asia Minor country of Lydia. Minting of coins in Russia began in reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). The first gold coin was the zlatnik, which looked like a Byzantine solid.
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The Society of Evangelical Brothers (Hernguthers) is one of the trends in Protestantism that is close to Lutheranism and Baptism.
Commoner - a permanent resident of an area, belonging to the taxed classes.
A community is an association of people who own property jointly. The community is characterized by self-government.
Oghuz - Turkic-speaking tribes that inhabited Central and Middle Asia in the seventh and eleventh centuries. In the middle of the 11th century, a part of the Oghuz settled the South Russian steppes, while another part, together with the Seljuks, took part in the conquest of Western Asia.
Okolnichy - a court rank in the Moscow state; the second after the boyar rank in the system of positions, the holders of which participated in the government of the country. Okolnichy were members of the princely and tsarist dumas.
The Horde is a nomadic tribe of Turkic and Mongol peoples.
The Horde (Golden, Blue, White, etc.) is the name of the Mongol-Tatar states. In Russia this word referred to the Golden (then Big) Horde, created by Batu Khan after his conquests in the middle and lower reaches of the Volga River. The Horde lived a semi-nomadic life: they spent the winter in towns built on the Volga, and from spring to autumn they roamed with their herds in the steppes between the Volga, the Don and the Kuban. Subsequently, the khans of the Golden Horde built or themselves a large city of Sarai, which became their capital.
The Oruzhnichy was an honorary position in the Moscow state in the 16th-17th centuries. He was in charge of the tsar's arms treasury, the manufacture, storage and procurement of various cold and firearms for it.
Ostgoths (Ostrogoths, Greitungi) - Germanic tribe, eastern branch of Goths. In 488, led by Theodoric, they invaded Italy and there in 493 established their kingdom.
Ostrog - widespread type of fortification in Russia in the form of a wooden fence made of pointed logs. Ostrog was usually built in sparsely populated, but timber-rich frontier regions of Russia, particularly in Siberia during its conquest by the Muscovite state.
Ostyak is the Russian name for the Siberian Khanty people who lived on the Ob, Irtysh, and their tributaries.
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Pala is a special kind of farming. To obtain land suitable for sowing, they cut down a part of the forest and burnt the cut down trees. Pala was in use in some of the northern provinces of Russia where the Finns lived.
Vow: a promise, an undertaking.
Palestine (Old Hebrew) is a historical region in Western Asia, associated with the events recounted in the Old and New Testaments. It is home to holy sites of great importance to Christians, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
Pannonia is a Roman province that was formed in the eighth century and occupied part of the territory of modern Hungary, Austria, Serbia and Montenegro. In the Middle Ages this province was inhabited by the Pannonians (Illyrian tribes), hence the name of the region.
Pope - the head of the Catholic Church, considered by Catholics to be the successor of the Apostle Peter. The Pope is elected for life by a special council of cardinals and bishops - the conclave. The power of the Pope in the Catholic Church is unlimited and his decisions are considered infallible.
The first parsuns, such as those of Tsar Fedor Ioannovich and Mikhail Vassilievich Skopin-Shuisky, were similar in technique and style to the icons. In the second half of the 17th century the art of parsunnas took two directions. The first was the intensification of the iconographic approach, i.e. the superimposition of a real-life image on the ideal image of the patron saint (cf. the parsun of Tsar Feodor Alexeyevich). The second tendency is connected with the aspiration to transmit individual features of a person, three-dimensional forms (parsuns of Prince Kiy, G.P. Godunov, Yakov Turgenev and others). In the second half of the 17th century parsuns were often painted in oil on canvas, sometimes from life. Many masters of the Armoury worked in the parsun technique: S. Ushakov, I. Maksimov, V. Poznansky, G. Adolsky (Odolsky) and others.
Flock - believers who live in one parish; parishioners.
Shepherd - by Orthodox Christians: the priest, spiritual mentor of his parishioners (flock).
Paterikos (from the Greek "paterikos" - "father", "fatherly book") - In Byzantine ascetic literature they were called collections of short stories about the ascetics of a famous monastery, or of short moral-educational words of the fathers and elders of these monasteries. The Slavo-Russian literary and book tradition includes several pateriks: the Alphabet, the Alphabet-Jerusalem Chronicle, the Egyptian, the Kievo-Pechersk, the Roman, the Sinai, the Skete.
The Paterik of Kievo-Pechersk is a collection of works about the history of the Kievo-Pechersk monastery and its first ascetics. The Paterik was a defining influence on the development of the Paterik genre in Old Russian literature. The pateriks of Volokolamsk, Pskovo-Pechersk, and Solovetsky were written under his influence. The Kievo-Pechersk Paterikon was formed in the early 13th century. Its oldest scrolls date back to 1406. The Paterikon was based on correspondence between Bishop Simon of Vladimir and Suzdal and Monk Polykarp of Pechersk. In addition to the works of Simon ("Word on the foundation of the Pechersk church," stories about the Pechersk monks Onesiphorus, Eustratius, Nikon, Kuksha, Pimen, Athanasius, Svyatosha, Erasmus, Arefha, Titus, and Evagrius) and Polycarp (a letter to the hegumen of the Pechersk monastery Akindin and stories about Nikita, Lavrentii, Agapyta, and Evagrius), the Pechersk monks wrote on the subject of the monastery, Lavrenti, Agapit, Grigori, John, Moses, Prokhor, Mark, Theodore and Basil, Spyridon and Alipy, and Pimen) were included in the Paterikon. The Paterik of Kievo-Pechersk enlivens the traditional saint narrative scheme typical of hagiography with historical, everyday life and psychological details. The events unfold against the background of the Russian reality of the XI-XIII centuries. More than 200 manuscripts of this work are known by now. N.S. Leskov and L.N. Tolstoy used it in their works, and Alexander Pushkin highly appreciated its artistic merits.
The patriarch (Greek: "ancestor") is the head of an independent (autocephalous) Orthodox church, elected by a council of metropolitans and bishops. In Russia, patriarchy was established in 1589. The first Russian patriarch was Metropolitan Job. Under Peter the Great, the Patriarchate was abolished and replaced by a government institution, the Holy Synod, in 1721. It was restored in 1917-1918.
Pasha - the title of a nobleman (dignitary), a military leader in the Turkish (Ottoman) Empire.
Penalty (Latin for "punishment") - monetary penalty levied on the guilty person in favor of the victim or the state; also a forfeit for overdue payment.
Permian (Permians) - a small nation, who lived in the XIII-XVII centuries on the banks of the Kama River. Ancestors of the modern Komi people.
Badjanaks is a nomadic Turkic-speaking people who lived on the Black Sea steppes in the IX- XI centuries. Badjanaks repeatedly made raids on the Russian land. They were defeated by Prince Yaroslav the Wise in 1036 near Kiev.
Pikiners - infantrymen in the European armies of the 16th-17th centuries, armed with long pikes. Their main task was to cover musketeers on the battlefield, armed with firearms.
Pishchal is the common name for firearms and artillery pieces that appeared in the 14th century.
Plastuny - the name of those Kuban Cossacks (scouts) who were on guard duty in low-lying areas, overgrown with reeds and rushes.
Podyachiy - lower rank in the clerical administration of the Moscow State in the XVI - early XVIII centuries. Podyachiy were divided into senior, middle rank and junior.
Pokrov (Intercession of the Holy Virgin) - a Christian holiday, celebrated by the Orthodox Church on October 1 (14).
A regiment is an independent military unit, a part of a brigade or division.
The Kipchaks are nomadic people who moved to the Black Sea coast from the steppes of the Volga region in the 11th century. Hordes of Kipchaks repeatedly attacked the Russian lands. They also took part in the internecine wars of Russian princes, helping those of them, who became related to the Polovtsian khans by marrying the khan's daughters.
Poltinik - Russian coin of 50 kopecks. The name comes from the ancient non-Russian monetary unit "poltina" ("pol" - half and "tin" - ruble). Poltininik was first issued in 1654 of copper.
Polushka is an old Russian changeable coin. Originally it was minted in silver, in 1700 in copper. Polushka was equal to 1/2 of Moscow or 1/4 of Novgorod money, a quarter of kopecks.
Poludie - in Kievan Rus: a round trip by the prince and his troops to collect the tribute.
Polians: a Slavic tribe that lived in the areas along the Dnieper River.
Pontus (Pontus of Euxin) (Greek: "hospitable sea") is the ancient Greek name of the Black Sea.
Porphyry (from the Greek purple, the old Slavonic name is purple) is a ceremonial outerwear of sovereigns, a type of mantle, a long broad cloak of purple (scarlet) silk, trimmed with ermine fur.
Posadnik - originally a governor of the prince in one of the large Russian cities, later in Novgorod and Pskov: a senior boyar, who, by election of the vech, headed the management of the city and its suburbs.
A posadsky, a resident of a posad (town), a citizen.
The monastic tonsure is a Christian rite of monasticism or consecration to the priesthood.
The principal representatives of the movement, who preached the Orthodox view of the world and the idea of the identity and special historical mission of Russia, were A. Grigoriev, N. Strakhov, and F. Dostoevsky. The poet A.A. Maykov formulated the principle of "immediacy", which developed into a kind of cult of "soil" and the common people in his worldview. The basic ideas of the "Soil Scientists" were expressed in the magazines Vremya and Epoch, published by the Dostoyevsky brothers. All the representatives of the movement collaborated with these journals. The religious philosopher V. V. Zenkovsky, in assessing the role and significance of "Sozhestvennost'" in the history of Russian culture, notes that it marked the beginning of a "new period in the history of Russian thought" - the period of the flowering of the Orthodox view of the world.
Orthodoxy ("right faith") is one of the main and oldest schools of thought in Christianity. It emerged at the time when the Roman Empire divided in 395 into the Western Empire, centered in Rome, and the Eastern Empire, centered in Constantinople.
The sling is the most ancient hand-thrown weapon, consisting of a strap (leather, dense cloth) with an expanding middle part, in which a stone or a piece of lead was inserted. The reticule was rotated above the head, and then, abruptly releasing one end of the belt, the stone was thrown at the enemy.
Transfiguration - one of the Twelve Great feasts, celebrated by the Orthodox Church on August 6 (19).
Prikaz (edict) was a management body in the Moscow state of the 16th-17th centuries, which was in charge of a certain range of issues assigned to it ("ordered") by the tsar. Prikazes were headed by boyars and okolnichies. Each Prikaz had a permanent staff of clerks who supervised all paperwork of this institution. The largest prikaz (prikaz of clandestine affairs, divisional prikaz, prikaz of the Great Palace, Pomestny prikaz, Prikaz of the Big Treasury, Zemsky prikaz, etc.) were among the most important. By the mid 17th century there were about 80 prikazes in Russia. They were abolished under Peter I in the process of reforming the system of government.
Prophet - a soothsayer and preacher, who has a divine gift of predicting the future.
Archpriest - in the Orthodox Church: the senior (first) parish priest.
Prussia - One of the German states that arose in 1525 on part of the land of the Teutonic Order seized from the Prussians. In 1701, the Duchy of Prussia became a kingdom with Berlin as its capital.
Psalm (Greek for "song") - A spiritual verse; one of the songs that make up the Psalter, created, according to tradition, by King David.
Psalter (from the Greek "psaltirios", "psalos" - "I sing") - The Book of Psalms, one of the Biblical books of the Old Testament, liturgical book, read during the morning and evening services, the original source of many evening and morning prayers. The author of the Psalms is thought to be King David, but there are psalms of later origin, from the time of the so-called "captivity of Babylon" (the psalm "On the Rivers of Babylon"). It is believed that David was the author of 78 psalms, one by Moses, 11 by the Levites, 12 by the prophet Asaph, one by Haman and one by Epham. The Psalms were translated into Slavic by the "original Slavic teachers" Cyril and Methodius. The most famous Old Russian manuscripts of the 14th century are the Psalter of Chudovo, the Psalter of Frolov, the Psalter of Ivan the Terrible (a contribution to the Trinity-St. Sergius Monastery) and the 12 Godunov Psalteries (the end of the 16th century) - a contribution of boyar Dmitry Godunov to churches and monasteries "for a Memorial of the Soul". Psalter was first printed in the Slavonic language in Krakow in 1491, then in 1525. F. Skorina in Vilna.
Pulla (pula, pulo) - old Russian copper coin. Its value was equal to 1/10 of silver money.
Desert - a lonely abode, a solitary dwelling.
Pyatisotny - a military rank (rank) in the Russian army (the most common in the Streltsy army), the head of the unit of 500 soldiers.
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Equal Apostles are the saints of the apostolic disciples and ascetics, who, like the apostles, established the Christian faith and enlightened the nations. Such were St. Mary Magdalene, Emperor Constantine and his mother Helen, Prince Vladimir and Princess OlgaR. ada - a people's assembly or council of representatives in Ukraine, Belarus, Poland and Lithuania.
Radonezh - now: the village of Gorodok, near the Trinity Sergius Lavra.
Razryadny Prikaz (Razryad) - the central state institution in charge of all the people in military service, military administration, as well as the southern cities. Razryad existed since the middle of the 16th century. During military operations the government used Razryad to lead the armed forces, it distributed servicemen among the regiments, appointed voivodes and their assistants, and provided the servicemen of the state with land and money allowances. The regiment was abolished by Peter I in 1711.
Raka (Latin for "box") is a large casket in the form of a sarcophagus, decorated with carvings and inlays of precious stones. It was intended for storage of relics of saints.
Raskolniki (Old Believers, Old Believers) are opponents of Patriarch Nikon's ceremonial reforms, fanatical defenders of the "old faith. The most famous schismatic was Protopopus Avvakum, burned in 1682 in Pustozersk for insulting the Tsar's dignity.
Raskolnichestvo (schism) - a religious movement that arose in Russia after the church ceremonial reform by Patriarch Nikon in 1653. Its opponents (dissenters) rejected the necessity to adjust the rites of the Russian Orthodox Church and the other Orthodox Churches, referring to the exclusive position of Holy Russia as the only surviving independent center of Orthodoxy (the other Orthodox nations were subjugated by Turkey and Poland).
Ratnik (dr.-Russian) - a soldier, a soldier of the militia (most often a foot town regiment).
The Ratny (Military) Statute is a set of rules governing the organization of military service, rights and duties of soldiers in peacetime and wartime. The first in Russia military statutes were 'Boyars' resolution on stanitsa and patrol service' (1571), 'Statute of soldiers, cannon and other matters regarding military science' (1607, 1621), 'Teaching and artfulness of military structure of infantry men' (1647). A whole series of statutes and articles aimed at reconstructing the Russian military system in accordance with European standards appeared during the era of Peter the Great. The first of them were the Military Statute of general A. Veide (1698), the Statute of B.P. Sheremetev (1702), and, finally, the Military Article of Peter the Great himself (1716), which kept its value until the Military Reform of 1869.
Revision - a census of the population, counting "revisionist souls" (male persons).
Regent - the governor under a minor or sick sovereign.
Rezana - a petty unit of currency in ancient Russia.
Reserve (Latin for "saving") - a part of an army, not involved in combat operations, designated for use in the most critical moments of a battle as a reinforcement for the units that need replenishment and rest.
Reiters (from German "reiter" - "rider") - warriors of heavy cavalry in a number of armies in the 16th-17th centuries.
The Nativity of Christ is the most important of the Twelve Great Feasts in memory of the birth of Jesus Christ in Bethlehem. The holiday is celebrated on December 25 (January 7).
Ruble (from the verb "to cut") - the term appeared in Novgorod in the XIII century as the name of the half of hryvnia.
Rus' - in the sources of the VIII-X centuries: the name of the people who participated in the formation of the Old Russian state. Historical scholarship still continues to debate about the ethnic origins of the Rus'. Relying on the "Tale of Bygone Years", some historians believe that the chronicler identified Russ with the tribe of Polans, and believed that they, along with other Slavs, came from the upper reaches of the Danube. Others suggest that the Russians were a Varangian tribe, summoned to reign at Novgorod by Oleg Veshny. The third prove, that the author of " the Word about the regiment of Igor " connected an origin Russ with Northern Black Sea Coast and a pool of Don. Many historians consider Russ by Slavs. There is a point of view according to which Russ is Sarmato-Alanian people, descendants Roxolan.
Rind (rond) - in Russia in the XV-XVII centuries: the armor bearer and bodyguard of the great princes, the Moscow tsar.
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Sazhen' - old Russian measure of length. In XI-XVII centuries there were sazhen in 152 and 176 cm. Decree of 1835 the size of sazheni was defined as 7 English feet, which was equal to 213.36 cm.
The Saxons were a group of Germanic tribes who lived in the lower reaches of the Rhine and Elbe. IN THE VI century, the period of the Anglo-Saxon conquest, some Saxons migrated to Britain.
Sarmatians is the ancient name for the nomadic Iranian tribes who lived in the 3rd century B.C. - 4th century A.D. in the steppes of Eurasia from the Tobol River in Siberia to the Danube River in Europe. They were not only Sarmatians proper, but also Alans and Roxolans. At first they were at enmity with the Scythians and then with the Goths who came here. In the fourth century, mixed with the Huns, some Sarmatian tribes participated in the Great Western campaign. The others remained nomadic on the Azov steppes and assimilated with the other peoples.
Saul was the first king of Judea, who ruled at the end of the 11th century BC, defeated by the Philistines at Mount Gilboa (about 1004 BC).
Svarog - according to Slavic mythology, the god of fire. The word "Svarog" is related to the root "var" - "heat", "burning", "fire". Svarog had sons - Svarozhich - gods of earthly fire.
Svevs - a group of Germanic tribes, who inhabited the Danube region and were defeated in 58 BC by Julius Caesar. In 409, some of the Sveves migrated from the Upper Danube to the Iberian Peninsula, where they established their own kingdom.
Saint Sophia is the personification of the wisdom of God. The cult and veneration of St. Sophia exist only in the Orthodox East. On the icons, Sophia is depicted as the Holy Virgin with her hands raised to heaven and with the child. She stands on a crescent moon, under which is an ambo with seven steps, each of which represents Faith, Hope, Love, Purity, Humility, Grace and Glory.
Priest (priest, pop) - an Orthodox clergyman who independently conducts church services.
Holy Scripture - the religious books that make up the Bible: the Old and New Testaments.
Northerners - a Slavic tribe that lived in the area of Chernigov and Kursk.
Sejm - estate-representative institution of parliamentary type in Poland, Lithuania and medieval Bohemia; the Russian name for the parliament in the Grand Duchy of Finland, which was part of the Russian Empire on the rights of autonomy.
Sekira - ancient weapon in the form of an axe on a long hilt.
Seljuk - a branch of the Oghuz Turk tribes, which received its name from their ancestor, the Seljuk (10th - 11th centuries). In the 11th century, they conquered parts of Central Asia, Iran, Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Iraq, Armenia, Asia Minor and Georgia.
Seljukids - sultans of the Turkic dynasty that ruled in the XI-XIV centuries in several countries of the Near and Middle East.
Seminary - in the Russian Empire: a special educational institution for training clergymen (spiritual seminary) or elementary school teachers (teacher's seminary).
The Senate (from the Latin senex, "old man") is the supreme authority. The Senate first appeared in ancient Rome as a council of elders, and subsequently became widespread in many countries around the world. In Russia from 1711 to 1917 the Senate was the supreme legislative and judicial body.
Serbia is a Slavic republic in the Balkans, with its capital in Belgrade. The Serbian state, which emerged in the 12th century, was ruled by the Ottoman Empire for several centuries after the defeat of the Serbian army at the Kosovo Field in 1389. As a result of the long struggle, Serbia regained its independence in 1878 with the support of Russia.
Servants - in medieval Europe were peasants who were in personal dependence on the feudal lord.
Synod - the highest state body in Russia, which manages the affairs of the Orthodox Church.
Scepter (Greek: "staff") - a small rod, one of the signs (regalia) of the monarch's power.
Scythians - the tribes that lived in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea coast (between the Danube and the Don) in the 7th century BC - 3rd century AD. They sowed grain, raised livestock, and were engaged in crafts. The Scythians were famed as fine, strong, invincible warriors who bravely fought their neighbors and even Alexander of Macedonia.
The Sklavins is one of the names of a group of Slavic tribes that lived near the borders of the Byzantine Empire. Since the Byzantines had Slavic slaves, the Latin term "Sklavi" was consonantally transferred to the Slavs. From the beginning of the 7th century the word "Sklavin" was already used as the general name of the Slavs. In Byzantine sources Sclavinia was the name of the regions of Peloponnesus and Macedonia.
Skomorokh - In ancient Russia: a wandering actor and musician. Skomorokh usually united in large "hordes" and entertained spectators in the streets with performances of their own composition.
Ilmen Slavs (Slovenes) - Slavic tribes that lived on the shores of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River.
Slavophiles, representatives of one of the trends in Russian public thought of the second half of the 19th century. They advocated a development path for Russia that is fundamentally different from that of Western Europe and supports preserving its own identity. Slavophiles believed that patriarchy, conservatism, and Orthodoxy were the fundamentals of Russia. They view the peasant community as the foundation of the future state system. I. S. and K. S. Aksakov, A. S. Khomyakov, and I. V. and P. V. Kireevsky were prominent representatives of the movement.
Sloboda is a separate settlement of military men (streltsy and cannon fighters) in or near the medieval Russian town. The residents of sloboda were exempt from paying taxes and other duties, hence the name (variant of the word "liberty").
The Sogdians (Sogdy) are an ancient East Iranian people, the ancestors of the modern Tajiks and Uzbeks. From the middle of the 1st millennium B.C. they inhabited the Sogd.
Sokolnichy was a court rank in the Russian state. Sokolnichesky was responsible for the organization of the Grand Ducal hunting. At the end of the XVI - XVII centuries: a boyar or okolnichy, who headed the Sokolnichy Prikaz (Department of Falconers).
Solomon was a son of David, king of Israel (965-928 BC), famous for his wisdom. During his reign the famous Temple of Solomon was built in Jerusalem.
The sun was an object of worship for the ancient Slavs. They also worshipped the earthly incarnation of the Sun - fire, in all its manifestations and qualities. In the Slavic pantheon there were several gods that personified the Sun: Svarog and Svarozhich, Dajbog, Yarilo, Lada, Lel, Khors, etc. The travelers and historians of the IX century often called the Slavs "sun worshippers".
Solun (Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki) - a city and port in Greece, founded in 315 BC.
estate - a group of persons to whom the law has assigned certain rights and duties. Privileged estates included the nobility and the clergy. There was a class of taxpayers: the peasantry and the bourgeoisie.
A centenary head is the head of a hundred in the noble militia.
A centurion is a commander of a hundred men.
Plough, The old tilling implement made of wood, often with an iron tip (stole-1) An ancient wooden plough- tool, often with an iron tip (soshnik); 2) a tax unit in the system of taxation existing in Russia in the XIII-XVII centuries. One plough usually consisted of 2-3 peasants. Camp - in the XI-XVII centuries: a marching military camp and a place of the army at rest. Usually, camp was settled on an open elevated place.
Stanitsa, The name was originally given to a Cossack detachment sent to conduct reconnaissance and patrol service. Later, it also became the name of large Cossack settlements and deputations of Cossack troops to Moscow.
Starover (Old Believer) - a schismatic, an opponent of the church reform of Patriarch Nikon.
Elder (elder) - the head of the community, chosen from among the influential, older and wiser members of the community.
Starshina (Cossack) - in the XVI-XVIII centuries: an official in the Cossack armies, belonging to the top of the Cossacks. Starshinas were atamans, clerks, judges, etc.
The Book of Stepennaia ("The Book of the Tsar's genealogy, and in Russian Land by the God-appointed Scepter-holders..."). - One of the most famous historical and literary monuments of the 16th century, created by the efforts of Metropolitan Athanasius in 1560-1563. The first edition in 1755 had the following title: "A Tale of the holy piety of the Russian ascendants and their holy seed, and others". The steppennaia book was compiled on the basis of chronicles and chronographs and represents a first attempt to introduce a system to the numerous annalistic accounts. It provides a consistent presentation of events in Russian history up to August 1560. It also mentions the events of the summer of 1562 and February 1563. The title "Book of Degrees" is explained by the fact that the events are related to the genealogical ranks of great princes. All the most important events are divided into 17 degrees (sides). In the center of each degree there is a biography of the ruler accompanied by the compositions about metropolitans and saint ascetics. The narratives are based on annalistic and hagiographic material. Written for the purpose of "exalting the tsar's power," the Stepennaia is a summary of both ecclesiastical and civil history. At present more than 70 copies of the Stepen Books are known. The oldest are the Tomsk and Chudovo, created under Metropolitan Philip in 1566-1568.
Stoglav is a special church collection of legal norms, defining the inner life of the Russian clergy. It was adopted by the Stoglavy Church Council in 1551.
A stolnik - a palace, then court rank in the Russian State in the XIII-XVII centuries. A stolnik served at ceremonial feasts ("tables"), served the tsar "in the rooms" and accompanied him on his travels.
Streltsy - a foot soldier, trained in formation and rifle marksmanship. The Streltsy Army was created in 1550 under Tsar Ivan the Terrible. During peace time Streltsy were on garrison duty in cities, during wartime some of them would march in the army. They were armed with a pishkal (rifle), saber and berdysh (long-handled fighting axe), which also served as a support for a heavy pishkal. The Streltsy Army was abolished by Peter I due to the creation of the regular Russian army.
Codebook - a collection of laws in Russia, such as Codebook of Ivan III in 1497 and Codebook of Ivan the Terrible in 1550.
Sultan (ar. - Turkish - "ruler") - the title of the supreme ruler in Muslim countries.
Sunnism - one of the two branches of Islam. Along with the Koran, Sunnism recognizes the Sunnah, and relies on the consent of the entire community in deciding the issue of supreme Muslim authority (imam-halifa).
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Thaler - a gold and silver coin weighing 28 g, first minted in 1518 in Bohemia from silver. One Thaler was equal to three gold marks. The coin was in circulation until 1907.
Tanais is the ancient Greek name of the river Don, in the mouth of which in the ancient centuries there was a city with the same name.
Tanga (from Turkic "tamga" - "brand", "seal") - a small silver coin in Eastern countries.
Teutonic Order - the Catholic spiritual knightly organization, which emerged in the XII century. The Order was defeated in 1410 at the Battle of Grunwald. In the 16th century a secular state of Prussia emerged on its lands.
Temnik - the commander of darkness (ten thousand soldiers).
Terem - in Ancient Rus: the top floor of the house or a separately standing high structure. The same name was given to separate rooms for maidens, placed in the upper part of the building.
Turks (Oguzes) - nomadic Turkic people who lived in the IX-X centuries in the Ural steppes, on the eastern borders of the Khazar Kaganate. In the middle of the 11th century, under the onslaught of the Polovtsians, the Oguzes, together with the Pechenegs, migrated to the Southern Russian steppes. In a fierce battle with the Polovtsians at the Don in 1116 the army of the Oguz Torks was defeated. Put into a desperate situation the Oguz Torks and their allied Pechenegs came to Rus under the protection of the Kievan prince Vladimir Monomakh. In these new subjects the Russian princes received a mobile light-horse army, which was very efficient in fighting the Polovtsian raids. The place of the settlement of the Oguz Torks was the Porossie - a large part of the steppe, fenced off from other plains by the right tributaries of the Dnieper - the Rivers Rosya and Stugna, as well as impassable forest thickets, preventing a sudden attack of enemy hordes of horses.
The Tractatus (Latin for "Tractatus"). A treaty is an international treaty, a covenant or agreement, signed by a certain Urartian potentate.
Trajan (53-117) was Emperor of Rome from 98. Thanks to his campaigns of conquest the Roman Empire reached its maximum extent: Dacia, Arabia, Great Britain, and Mesopotamia were conquered.
Treba - 1) a pagan rite of sacrifice; 2) a liturgical rite performed at the request of believers. It may be, for example, a baptism, a wedding, and a funeral service.
Tribunal (Latin, "tribunal") - A judicial board; an emergency or special court, e.g., a revolutionary court.
Shem. Trizna - a pagan ritual feast among the ancient Slavs in memory of the dead or deceased.
Troparion (Greek) - a short hymn, which reveals the essence of the holiday or glorifies a sacred person.
Tysyatsky - a commander, who led a "thousand" in the militia, assistant posadnik, the head of the militia (in Novgorod).
T'ma (Old Russian.) - ten thousand.
Tyufyak is a cannon, firing a buckshot.
Tyaglo (from Other - Russian "tyag" - "to incur duties") - the system of monetary and natural ties in the Russian State XV - early XVIII centuries.
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Udel - a part, area of the state, governed by a junior (appanage) prince.
Uyezd in the Moscow State: a part of the territory centered in a large city. In the Russian Empire from the beginning of the XVIII century.
Uigurs is one of the Turkic peoples living in the Far East (China) and Central Asia (Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan).
Ulus (Mong. - "state", "people") is an appanage possession of one of the Chinggisid khans (descendants of Genghis Khan), formally subordinate to the great khan, who ruled in Karakorum, the capital of Mongolia. Russian princes were also considered "ulusniki" (tributaries) of the Mongol khans, who received from the Golden Horde the labels (letters, patent) for the right of possession of their principalities.
Uniates - supporters of the unification of the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches under the supremacy of the Pope of Rome with preservation of Orthodox rites and liturgy in the Russian language.
Unia - a union of two states under one monarch; the unification of the Catholic and Orthodox churches, which resulted in the creation of the Greek Catholic (so-called Uniate) Church, which became widespread in Galicia and Western Ukraine.
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Faktoriya - a trading office and settlement of European merchants in colonial countries.
Fieldmarshal (Field-Marshal-General) - the highest military rank (rank) in the ground forces, introduced in Germany in the 16th century. In Russia the rank of field marshal was introduced by Peter I in 1699.
Philistines - people of the "Sea Peoples," who inhabited the south-eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea from the 12th century B.C.
Frigate - a three-masted warship, second in size after the battleship. Frigates usually had two battery decks and were intended mainly for cruising and reconnaissance. In naval combat they were included in the second line of battle formation line.
The pound is a Russian measure of weight used before 1918. It was equal to 1/40 pood, or 0.409 kg.
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The Khazars were a nomadic, Turkic-speaking people who lived on the banks of the Volga and the Don in the 4th-9th centuries. The Khazars appeared in Eastern Europe after the invasion of the Huns; under Kagan Obadiah they adopted Judaism. (They didn’t adopt anything, Obadiah took over with a violent coup). Some Slavic tribes paid tribute to them (Vyatichi for the longest time). The Khazars were defeated by Prince Svyatoslav and then by the Pechenegs.
Chaldeans were Semitic tribes, who inhabited the Southern Mesopotamia in the first half of the I millennium BC.
Khan (Turk. - "ruler") - the title of the ruler of the eastern nomadic peoples.
Khors - according to Slavic mythology, the god of the Sun.
Historical chronology - an auxiliary historical discipline. Based on the study and comparison of written or archaeological sources accurate dates of various historical events and documents. The name is derived from the Greek words "chronos" ("time") and "logos" ("science").
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Tsargrad - adopted in Russia the name of the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (now Istanbul).
Tselovalnik - an elective position in the Russian state. On assuming a position, it was supposed to swear an oath and kiss a cross.
Cesar - a title of Roman emperors.
Cyclone - a region of low pressure in the atmosphere with a mini-moon in the center.
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Book of Hours - a church book of services and prayers for all days of the year, arranged in the order of hours.
Chervonets (Polish - "red", "gold") - the common name for foreign gold coins used in pre-Petrine Russia.
Cheremis - Mari people, people living in the Middle Volga region.
The Circassians are one of the North Caucasus mountain peoples. After the Caucasus War in 1817 - 1864, a large part of the Circassians emigrated to Turkey and other countries in West Asia. Black klobuki (the Russian reading of the Turkic name "karakalpaks" - "black hats") - the collective name of nomadic peoples: Torks, Pechenegs and Berendeys, as well as small hordes of Kouys, Kaepiches, Turpeys and Bastians, who recognized the supreme authority of Kiev princes and in XI - early XIII centuries were on watch and patrol service on the borders of Russia with the Steppe. Black people (black people) - in Russia in the XII-XIII centuries the urban and rural population, which paid all taxes and performed all duties in favor of the state, was called in this way. In contrast to them white people were exempt from all or part of the duties.
Quarter - a Russian measure of the volume of bulk solids, equal to 209.91 liters.
Nislennik is a census tallyman of the Russian population, who came from the Horde.
The Chud (from the Russian word "strangers") is a widespread name of the Finno-Ugric in chronicles.
Ugric. Often Estonians, the ancestors of modern Estonians, were called so. Chukhonets" is the old Russian name of the Finn, an inhabitant of Finland.
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Shah - title of the sovereign in Persia (Iran) and some other countries of the East.
Shiism (ar. - "group of adherents") - one of the two main directions in Islam, which emerged in the VII century. Shiites do not recognize the Sunni caliphs, considering the legitimate successors of Mohammed and interpreters of Islam, only a dynasty of 12 Imams - the Alids (Ali and his descendants from his marriage with Mohammed's daughter - Fatima).
Shlachta - in Poland, Lithuania, and Ukraine: the main part of the ruling class, corresponding to the nobility in Russia.
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Era (Latin: "original number") - 1) in chronology: the initial moment of chronology and the system of chronology itself; 2) in geology: the interval of time in geological history, during which an erateme (group) was formed.
Estlandia: the historical name for the northern part of Estonia. Estonia became part of the Russian Empire under Peter the Great during the Great Northern War (1700-1721).
Esti - the ancient name for the Estonians.
Ethnos, an ethnic community - a historically formed stable group of people (tribe, nation, nationality). The main conditions for the emergence of ethnicity is the commonality of territory and language.
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Yugorskaya land - in the XII-XVII centuries: the name of the lands of the Northern Urals and the coast of the Arctic Ocean, from the Yugorsky Strait to the mouth of the Pechora River. These lands are inhabited by Khanty and Mansi peoples.
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Paganism is a common name for ancient religions with polytheism (in contrast to Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism).
Pagan - a follower of non-Christian beliefs, polytheism. The ancient Slavs were pagans before the baptism of Russia by Prince Vladimir the Holy in 988.
Yaik is the old name of the river Ural, used until 1775. Catherine II by her decree renamed the river, as in the peasant war led by E. Pugachev, many Yaitsk Cossacks took part in the peasant war.
Yasses is the Russian name of Alans (ancestors of Ossetians).
Yatvjagi - Old Prussian tribe, kindred to Lithuanians, who lived in the area of the river Neman. The Russian chronicles often referred to Yatviagi and Lithuanian tribes.
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