7. Ancient Rus and the Great Steppe, Gumilev
VI. Birth of the Chimera (809-838), Khazars, (Chimera as a metaphor, When two cultures are thrown together, it may be a monster, typically made up of parts from different animals.)
[A history of the Khazar People, very different from other accepted accounts.]
31. POWER
The Jewish community in Itil not only accumulated great wealth, but also included the khans of the Turkic Ashin dynasty. The Turks retained the custom of polygamy, married beautiful Jewish women, and their sons, while remaining Turkic kings, became members of the Jewish community. They studied Torah and Talmud, communicated with relatives of their mothers and married off on their advice to their countrywomen from among the rich brides. So gradually there was a separation of the Khazar nobility and the people, who lived quietly in a luxurious oasis in the Volga delta, not taking part in the affairs of the state, which no longer concerned them, (now in the international trade-route). But there remained the old tribal aristocracy; with it the matter was more complicated. The solution did not come until the ninth century.
It could be noted that for the persistent ethnos of the Khazars, the Turkic beks and tarkhans were as alien as the Judean merchants. Indeed, the Khazars received from the Ashin dynasty only one benefit - protection from external enemies and security, and this is quickly forgotten as it becomes habitual. Therefore, the social point - the dislike of the people for the aristocracy, not even their own, but those who came here - had a place in the Khazar society. Jews were outside of this antagonism, because they lived in isolated colonies and had little contact with local residents.
However, the nature of Turkic-Khazar and Judeo-Khazar relations was diametrically opposed. The Turks awarded Khazar children, who grew up as Khazars, with increased passionarity. Jews, on the contrary, extracted from the Khazar ethnos children either as full-fledged Jews (mother - a Jew), or as bastards (father - a Jew), which impoverished the Khazar ethnic system, and thus led to its simplification. With direct observation it seemed that it was just a chain of coincidences, but in fact it was a directed process, which for 80 years (counting from Bulan) gave very tangible results. A population of people who spoke Khazar, who had relatives among the Khazars and Turks, adapted in the landscape, but not being Khazars ethnically and culturally, now appeared in the country. To foreigners, writing about Khazaria from external cursory impressions, it seemed that these people are the Khazars of the Jewish faith, but neither Jews nor real Khazars were mistaken for a minute[1]. If with regard to the Khazars proof is not required, the medieval Jews recorded that they considered their Khazar co-religionists as descendants of the tribe of Simon and half tribe of Manasseh, dwelling "in the country of Kozraim, far from Jerusalem” ... They are countless and they take tribute from 25 countries, and on the part of the Ishmaelites pay tribute to them, because of the fear they inspire and their courage.
The cited text describes the situation not in the 8th century, but in the IX-X centuries, and very precisely. In the first decade of the IX-th century. [3] there were events, as a result of which a combination of two super-ethnoses transformed a zone of ethnic contact into a predatory and merciless ethnic chimera.
32. DISTRIBUTION
No one was going to convert the population of Khazaria to Judaism. The Jewish sages kept the covenant of Jehovah for the chosen people, who now have all the accrued benefits of leadership positions.
The coup, whose victim was a tribal aristocracy of all the ethnic groups that were part of the Khazar Kaganate and coexisting with the Turkic dynasty, caused a civil war, where Magyars were on the side of the rebels, and Pechenegs, hired for money, were on the side of the Judeans. Information about this war between the people and the government is contained in Constantine Porphyrogenitus: "When they had separation from their power and internecine war broke out, the first power prevailed, and some of them (the rebels) were killed, others fled and settled with the Turks (here - Hungarians). - L.G.) in (the present-day) Pechenezh's land (in the lower reaches of Dnieper. - L.G.), they concluded mutual friendship and were called kabars"[4].
This war was merciless, because, according to the Babylonian Talmud, "a non-Jew who does evil to a Jew, causes it to the Lord himself, and thus committing an insult to the Majesty, deserves death" (from the tractate "Sanhedrin", {Jewish judicial body}, without indicating the leaf and column).
For the early Middle Ages total war was an unaccustomed innovation. It was usually supposed, having broken the resistance of the enemy, to impose taxes and burdens on the defeated, often by military service in auxiliary units. But the extermination of all the people on the other side of the front was an echo of antiquity. For example, in Joshua's conquest of Canaan it was forbidden to take women and children prisoners and thereby keep them alive. Even the killing of domestic animals belonging to the enemy was prescribed. Obadiah revived this forgotten antiquity.
After this war, the beginning and end of which defies precise dating, Khazaria has changed its appearance. From a systemic integrity, it became an unnatural combination of an amorphous mass of subjects with the ruling class, alien to the people by blood and religion. There is no reason to call this situation feudalism. And can an ethno-social chimera belong to any formation? And the fact that Obadiah acted as a representative of the Khazar government does not mean that he cared about the fate of the people and the state. He simply used the right to disinformation, which, however, was prescribed by his religion, the religion towards which he was honest.
The Jews must have benefited greatly from the principle of legitimacy. Their power was called "first," and hence it was considered legitimate, as in the case of Mazdak. Anyway, in the 20s of the IX century the new order in Khazaria won a complete victory, with a small loss of territories subordinated to the pagan Khagans.
Crimean Gothia, an Orthodox country, fell away from Khazaria and joined Byzantium. Khazar Muslims suffered greatly, who could not be helped by the Caliph of Baghdad, because his forces were constrained by the rebellion of Babek, i.e. the Hurramites, the last Mazdakites. The Khazar Jews abandoned their former allies in distress, but thanks to this they established diplomatic contact with the Baghdad Caliphate, which ensured themselves a highly profitable trade on the shores of the Caspian Sea.
The decisive word in this ruthless war should have been said by the Khazar population of the Terek, Don and Volga delta valleys, but they kept silent. The inertness of the persistent ethnos condemned to death its beks, tarkhans and eltebers, and to the defeat of its allies, the Magyars, who fled beyond the Dnieper to the country of Leveda[5]. There, in the neighborhood of another Kaganate, pagan and mighty, the fugitives found some security. In 834 the Jews built the fortress Sarkel for protection from the western enemies, who were not only steppe Magyars, but also the Russian Khaganate in Kiev[6]. The garrison of the fortress consisted of Pechenegs or, maybe, Gozes[7].
The passivity of the Khazars saved them from a brutal execution, but painfully affected the fate of their children and grandchildren. In the VIII century Ashin khans were guided in politics, foreign and domestic, by the interests of their subjects. The Jewish kings did not set themselves such goals. They suppressed the internal enemies of Judaism, but not enemies of Khazaria. By eliminating the ecclesiastical organization of the Khazar Christians, they banned its restoration. In 854 Khazar Muslims were forced to emigrate to Transcaucasia[8].
Increasing the number of tribute-paying subjects was in the interests of the new government. Therefore, in the second half of IX century the Dnieper became the western border of Khazaria. The Slavic tribes: Northerners, Vyatichi and Radimichi - became the Khazar tributaries; Tivers and Ulics, who lived in the lower reaches of Bug and Dniester to the mouth of Danube, were apparently allies of the Khazar king in the uninterrupted war with the Magyars; it is clear from the fact that, according to the chronicles, Oleg captured without a fight the Northerners and Radimichi in 884-885, and "he fought with Ulics and Tivers". And if soon so, the Khazars were natural allies of the Ulyachs, as enemies of the prince of Kyiv. But the Polans, contrary to the direct testimony of the chronicler, did not pay a tribute to the Khazar king in the IX century[9]. Russian Khagans Dir and Askold, the direct descendants of Kiy, sat in Kiev, but not konungs at all, who escaped from Rurik[10]. In this case, as well as in most other cases, the data of historical analysis are preferable to the information from an authentic source.
33. CHIMERA ON THE VOLGA
If the eighth century Khazaria could be called an ethnic chimera, then in the ninth to twentieth centuries it became a socio-political chimera. Christians did not take part in the civil war, avoided reprisals, and continued to enjoy the patronage of overseas co-religionists. But the pagan natives had no one to rely on. They, it is true, were able to march under foreign banners, but the new rulers did not need their help.
The Khazar Judeans hired fighting force. At first, they used the Pechenegs against the Magyars, but in the second half of the IX century they quarreled with them and entered into an alliance with the Oguzes. In about 889 the Oguzes suppressed the Pechenegs, and they moved to the banks of the Dnieper, where they continued the war with the Magyars, not forgetting the Khazars. In 915 the Pechenegs for the first time appeared on the Rus border, but about that we shall speak later. Oguzes, too, did not remain long in friendship with the Khazar Judeans, and they had to look for another source of military power. It was found in the southeast coast of the Caspian Sea. Muslims willingly hired for service in Khazaria, stipulating only that they would not be sent to fight against Muslims. The permanent corps of mercenary guard in Itil in X century consisted of 7 thousand soldiers[11]. It was enough to keep the outskirts of the Kaganate and its own people in submission, and even for external wars of a small scale.
Judean Khazaria in the IX century had no wars of conquest in the Transcaucasia, but, despite this, the management system described here was expensive, much more expensive than the Turkic. For everything had to be paid for by the Khazars themselves, who became in their own country subjugated subjects without rights to a government, ethnically alien to them and alien to their religion and goals.
One could object that the budget of the Khazar Khaganate is unknown. So it is so, but known the budget of the Baghdad Caliphate, where in 869 for the annual salary and rations of 70 thousand hired Turks and Berbers [12] went 2 million gold dinars, which was equal to two years the amount of haraj[13]. Such were the prices of the soldiers in the IX century, and Khazaria was smaller and poorer than the Caliphate.
Paying a large salary to the soldiers, the Khazar government presented them an original requirement: the troops were forbidden to suffer a defeat. Failure to comply with the combat mission, that is, fleeing from the enemy, was punishable by death. The exception was made only for the leader and his deputy, who were not mercenaries, but Jews. But their belongings, wives and children were to be confiscated and they were to be given away by the king in front of them to his cronies. If they had no extenuating circumstances, they, too, were executed.
Obviously, soldiers, especially privates, could not always be blamed for the failure of an operation. Therefore, to deprive them of the opportunity to prove their innocence is unfair. But if we approach the matter in a different way, a rigid logic emerges: soldiers are not their own, they are paid, and for this money they give their lives to the owners; therefore, the owner can dispose of the sold life as a purchased item, and since supply exceeds demand, it was more practical to use the "purchase" to the limit, with maximum benefit for themselves. So, Muslim mercenaries were not seen as people, or rather, not as individuals, but only as an investment that was supposed to bring profit. From the point of view of the Eurasian nomads, Slavs, Byzantines, Arabs and even Germans, this attitude was unacceptable even to war horses and hunting dogs. Nevertheless, there were hunters to earn, and sometimes the "Khazar" army was increased to 12 thousand riders. It is clear that the funds to pay for the soldiers the government of Khazaria received not from the rahdonites, (Jews) who were traveling from China to Spain or from Iran to the Great Perm. With an increase in duties, the merchants would change the routes of the caravans. Consequently, the costs were covered by tribute from "Edom and the Ishmaelites," that is, the Khazars paid for their own enslavement. It is because the transit trade was the meaning of life for the Jewish community in Khazaria, and in accordance with this principle, the Muslim merchants and their accompanying geographers were met in Itil with extremely polite treatment, a one-sided judgment arose, formulated in a juvenile paper of V.V. Grigoriev:
"Unusual phenomenon in the Middle Ages was a Khazar people. Surrounded by wild and nomadic tribes, they had all the advantages of educated countries: an organized government, extensive, prosperous trade and permanent army. When the greatest powerlessness, fanaticism and deep ignorance disputed each other's dominion over Western Europe, the power of the Khazars was famous for justice and tolerance, and all persecuted for their faith flocked to it from everywhere. As a bright meteor she shone on the dark horizon of Europe and extinguished, leaving no trace of his existence "[15].
In fact, the city of Itil amazed travelers with its size. Located on both banks of the Akhtuba River, Itil spread out on 8-10 km along the left bank and on a beautiful green island in the floodplain, where the palace of the king was located. Judean population of the city numbered 4 thousand men, and in addition, there were Khazars, who practiced Judaism, apparently the children of mixed marriages. Other Khazars were Christians, Muslims or practiced the faith of their fathers[16].
Synagogues, mosques, churches, huge markets full of cheap mutton, various fish, fine watermelons, children of both sexes sold into slavery, ships going down the Volga, and caravans coming to the city from the east and west - all this made a strong impression on the witnesses, and their descriptions amused 19th century historians.
And yet Istahri and Ibn-Haukal reported, "The Khazars produce nothing and take out nothing but fish glue,"[17] but for the people such trade brought little income because of the striking cheapness of fish. The hard work of Khazar fishermen was paid minimally.
The tolerance of the Khazar Kaganate was forced, for it provided income from the transit trade. But as soon as anyone touched the interests of foreign Jewish communities, the Khazar tsar (not the Kagan) responded with reprisals. In 922-923, Muslims destroyed the synagogue in the city of Dar al-Babunaj[18]. For that the Khazar tsar destroyed the minaret in Itil and executed the innocent muezzins, having declared: "If I was not afraid that in the countries of Islam there would not be a single undestroyed synagogue left, I would surely destroy a mosque"[19].
But Muslim merchants bought from him slaves - Pechenezh and Slavic youths, paid him duties, overpaid for products at the bazaar, and served as intermediaries in hiring fierce and well-trained horsemen and archers. Peace with them was more profitable than war, even a victorious war.
34. SKEPSIS
(philosophical doubt as to the objective reality of phenomena)
Among the rapturous comments of contemporaries about the Khazar orders, there are those that cooled the fervor of enthusiasm. Khazars in April went to their fields and melons, and in the fall they brought the harvest to Itil to pay taxes for the maintenance of the Kagan, and therefore his cronies. For them, they also caught red fish "tastier than fat lamb and chicken meat" in the Volga. In front of the rulers Khazars were obliged to cast themselves down, and the saddest thing is that the children of Khazar idolaters were sold in the slave markets in the countries of Islam, and neither Jews nor Christians were sold into slavery by their co-religionists[20]. Apparently, the local population of Khazaria, deprived even of the organization that gives a confessional community, was completely defenseless before the formidable tax collectors, strangers by blood and religion.
That's where the funds to pay the Khorezmian and Gurgan warriors, who kept those who fed them in subjugation, came from. And they lived in hospitable Itil together with wives and children[21].
Except for Muslim guards, nominally guarding Khagan, tsar-Judean had 4 thousand husbands [22] in the retinue. With those too there were wives and children who were not fishing and in fields, heated by the summer sun, they did not work.
B.N. Zakhoder believes that "the exploited Khazar population was in a much more difficult situation than the peasantry in the Muslim East"[23]. In addition, the Muslim peasants frequently revolted to moderate the arbitrariness of officials, while there was not a single rebellion in Khazaria! And not because the Khazars were so happy.
Khazars cannot be blamed, because their situation was not only difficult, but also hopeless. Any rebellion by them against the government, which had a regular army, was doomed. It was easy to hide in the channels and thickets of the delta from outsiders, but not from their own, who knew the location of the villages and fisheries. Potential Khazar leaders either died in the war with Obadia or fled to the Hungarians. As a monument to the ruthless massacre of the government with its own subjects are the ruins of the Khazar castle on the right bank of the Don near the village Tsimlyanskaya. This castle, according to the discoverer, was destroyed because its owner took part in the fight against the Judaization of Khazaria[24]. The reprisals of the Itilian government against the rebels were so radical in the first half of the ninth century that the correlation of forces between the incoming government and the defeated people became obvious to both.
This situation escaped the superficial gaze of Arab travelers all the more easily that the children of mixed Jewish-Khazar marriages and even the Jews themselves in the tenth century began to call themselves Khazars. That is why the Arab geographers distinguished "black" and "white" Khazars as two different ethnic groups living together in one state (see above). That is why it is necessary to introduce two terms: "Judeo-Khazars" and "Turkic-Khazars. The descendants of the Türkic-Khazars (aborigines) in the XI century renounced their ethnic name[25]. Then the ethnonym "Khazar" was retained by the descendants of the Jews, but only until the end of the XI century, when the ethnos disappeared from the historical scene. But this will be discussed below.
Usually, the monuments survive the people. However, from the Khazar pagans remained only a poor burial in the delta of the Volga, and from the Khazar Christians and Muslims remained nothing. It is strange!
35. WHERE IS THE ART?
Why, in fact, nothing remained of the Khazars while the Hun's kurgans are full of masterpieces [26], Turkic [27] and Cuman [28] "stone sculptures" were found in great numbers, the Uigur frescos decorate the galleries of the Hermitage and the Berlin museum, and even from the ancient Ugric bas-reliefs with images of warriors and prisoners [29] have survived? Khazar vessels lack ornamentation[30], the discovered Khazar fortresses of the time were built carelessly,[31] and there are no images of people at all. Is it natural or was the archeological search just unsuccessful?
No; archaeologists worked in good faith. But the subjects of fine art of stable materials in Khazaria IX-X centuries. was not there, and could not be, although the Khazars were not inferior to their steppe and mountain neighbors. After all, you can produce cultural monuments only if there is a customer who can pay for the work of an artist. In Khazaria, the government could pay, and it was composed of people who denied the fine arts.
Ancient Jews, the contemporaries of Moses, valued the fine arts no less than their neighbors. They cast a golden calf (Apis) or a copper serpent as an image of the deity they wanted to pray to. Moses punished them severely for this, for on Mount Sinai he was told: "You shall not cast gods" (Exodus 34:17). His followers did the same, and finally weaned the Jews from depicting anything. The art remained with them, for the tabernacle and then the temple had to be decorated, but it became expressionless, moving to symbols and geometric ornaments. In short, ancient Jewish art became the prototype of abstractionism. Abstract art was difficult to instill even in the Jews.
They had been portraying the Baals and Astartes and worshipping clear and beautiful images of the deity. But by the beginning of the new era, their taste had become established. Any pictures and statues shocked them. Therefore, they had no painters of their own, and if they appeared, they were engaged only in calligraphy.
Khazars, pure of heart, did not understand abstract art, and they had no opportunity or desire to be interested in the complex problems of abstractionism in the situation described above. Their own art could not find a buyer, because the Turkic Khazars were poor and decorating requires some abundance. They did not erect grave monuments; they simply placed the dead on the tops of the hillocks where they were covered with steppe dust; they worshiped in sacred groves, not in temples[32]. And those Khazars who converted to Christianity or Islam were forced to pray in the same shacks in which they lived. It is true that there was a stone mosque in Itil, but it was intended for foreign traders. When the Byzantine engineer Petrona Kamatyr, building in 834 the fortress Sarkel, wanted to build a stone church for the Don Khazars, it was not allowed him. Stone columns and capitals he brought were left in the steppe, where they were found by M.I.Artamonov in 1935.
But then synagogues had to be built, at least in large settlements. Yes, of course! Why they did not survive, the reader will understand when he turns a few more pages.
36. DOUBLE LOVE
So, the technique of wide territorial coverage which we applied has justified itself. While we investigated only the subject, Khazaria, it was possible to construct any hypotheses to explain the lack of monuments. But when in the synchronous review the borders of the "white spot" were marked, then the assumptions about wildness of the Khazars and their prosperity reasonably fell away, although the latter conclusion was made by the brilliant orientalist V.V. Grigoriev based on many eastern sources.
V.V. Grigoriev was working at the level of his time: he studied the sources, i.e., words, and NOT deeds, which have their own internal logic of formation. Therefore, it did not even occur to him that the Khazars themselves might have more thorough judgments than those that could be reported by Arabs and Persians with a very superficial observation of the Khazars, although the Khazar opinions were not preserved in the written sources, because the Khazars were not able to write. However, their behavior, they clearly showed their attitude to the notorious "dual power", but to understand this, we must examine not the sources, but the history of events.
The established fact of "dual power", taken literally, gave rise to two diametrically opposed interpretations, equally unacceptable in a detailed study of history.
B.A. Rybakov calls Khazaria a "small semi-nomadic state of parasitic nature," which lived off of transit trade, "predatory use of the benefits of its position. He places Khazaria in the center of the Kalmyk steppe and indicates that there are "no archaeological traces of the Khazar cities. In the steppe they really do not see any. In short, B.A. Rybakov views the Khazars as one of the steppe tribes and denies them the right to participate in the world culture of the Middle Ages.
The second concept, on the contrary, attributes the brilliance of Khazaria timely introduction of the Khazars to Judaism[34]. Both concepts are incorrect, because by referring to the Khazar people - ethnos, they mean the state - society. In the state, called the Khazar Kaganate, in the IX-X centuries. Khazars were the most oppressed minority. Compared with the Khazars, the Alans, Burtases, Savirs and Huzes were almost free tribes, Khorezmian mercenaries - a privileged stratum, and members of the Jewish community - the ruling class, although among the latter there were many poor people.
And most importantly, for Muslims the Arabs were "their own", for Christians - the Greeks, for Jews - the Jews of all the big cities, from Canton to Grenada and from Baghdad to Lyons and Mainz, but the Khazars had no one. No one thought it necessary to intercede for them, and they felt relatively calm only on the hills and in the reeds of the delta.
Itil was indeed a magnificent city. Though its palaces were made of wood, felt and clay, it was filled with silk and sables, wine, mutton and sturgeon, beautiful dancers and obliging brats. But all this was not for the Khazars, but for the trading Rakhdonites, resting on the Volga after a long journey through the desert, from China, or through the mountains, from Provence. And the fact that the powerless kagan was a distant relative of the khans of Ashin, who had once married Jewish beauties, it did not matter, for the state was ruled by the "peh" or, more precisely, by the malik. He and his advisers were generic Jews, masters of a multi-ethnic state, and co-members of the most profitable trade enterprises. But he represented not so much Khazaria as his scattered and fabulously rich super-ethnos.
"Dual power" in Khazaria was a grand deception of the people, who once a year were shown a legitimate Khan, who had already become a Jew, so that the rest of the time the head of the Jewish community squeezed from the Khazars and surrounding peoples, funds for mercenaries who had to suppress the Khazars. And the Khazars paid for this ... and there was no way out.
Khazar tragedy is described by us, but not explained. Unclear are the reasons why a small Jewish community, devoid of sincere friends, hated by neighbors, not supported by their subjects, dominated the international trade and led a good half of the disparate Jewish communities for a hundred and fifty years. Without sincere companions and allies, such an undertaking is not feasible. So, the Jewish Khazaria had such allies.
"The enemies of our enemies are our friends," says the old proverb. Even if they do not like us and get nothing from us, they, fighting on their own, and thus against our enemies, help us. In the ninth to the eleventh centuries, irreconcilable with Christianity, Islam and Hinayana Buddhism were supporters of the teachings of the prophet and philosopher Mani, the creator of the most consistent anti-systemic concept. The Jews themselves, however, were opponents of any anti-systemic doctrine. They loved themselves, their deeds and their posterity in this world. For the sake of the triumph of their ethnos they used secrecy, weapons borrowed from their worst enemies, the Hellenic Gnostics, and lies, but only in relation to the Goyim and Akum. That Manichaeism corrodes any positive ethnic system, the Jews knew. That is why they preferred to see the Manicheans in their neighbors, but in no case allowed them in. And since the Rahdonites, like metastases, penetrated all civilized countries, they succeeded, though not always. So let us at least take a cursory look at the world surrounding the unhappy Khazaria. (Next Chapter.)
NOTES
[1] A. Koestler cites the testimony of Karaite author of the 11th century. Yafet ibn-Ali, who calls the Khazars Judean faith bastards (mamzer), thus showing the way in which this faith spread to the Khazar (Koestler A. Or. cit. P. 80). In the presence of the natural course of mestización there is no need to look for motives of a political nature. Bastards do not arise by instructions from the government.
[2] Berlin I. op. cit. p. 84.
[3] See: Artamonov M.I. History of Khazars. С.280.
[4] Quoted from: Artamonov M.I. Ibid, p. 324, because here there is a comparative analysis of semantic shades of three parallel translations.
[5] See: Artamonov M.I. op. cit. p. 341.
[6] See: Gumilev L.N. Tale about khazar tribute // Russian literature. 1974. №3. С. 166.
[7] See: Artamonov M.I. Ibid 328.
[8] See: Ibid. С. 329.
[9] See: Gumilev L.N. Tale of the Khazar tribute. С.168.
[10] See: Braychevskiy M.U. The adventures of Pyci. С. 172 (a footnote on Dlugosh is given).
[11] Masudi; quoted from: Minorsky V.f. History of Shirvan and Derbent of X-XI centuries. М., 1963. С. 194.
[12] Muller A. History of Islam. VOL. II. С. 213.
[13] Ibid. С. 216; haraj - state tax.
[14] See: Kovalevsky A.P. Book of Ahmed Ibn Fadlan about his journey to the Volga in 921-922: Articles, translations and comments. Kharkov, 1956. С. 147.
[15] Grigoriev V.V. On the duality of the supreme power among the Khazars / / Russia and Asia. SPb, 1876. С. 66.
[16] See: Zakhoder B.N. Caspian vault... С.140-143.
[17] Ibid. С. 141.
[18] The place of this city is unknown. See Ibid. С.161.
[19] Ibid.
[20] See: Zakhoder B.N. Caspian Vault... С.148.
[21] See: Ibid. С. 156.
[22] See: Ibid. С. 164.
[23] See ibid. С. 144.
[24] See: Pletneva S.A. Khazars. М., 1976. С. 63.
[25] See: Gumilev L.N. Discovery of Khazaria. С. 176-178.
[26] See: Rudenko S.I. Khun Culture and Noinulin barrows.
[27] See: Sher Ya.A. Stone sculptures of Semirechye. MOSCOW; L., 1966.
[28] See: Fedorov-Davydov G.A. Art of nomads and the Golden Horde. М., 1976.
[29] Vase from the Szentmikloski treasure. Museum of the History of art, Vienna.
[30] See: Gumilev L.N. Monuments of Khazar culture in the delta of the Volga / / Reports of the State Hermitage. XXVI. Л., 1965. С. 49-51.
[31] See: Bidzhiev X.X. and Gadlo A.V. Excavations of the Khumarinskoye settlement / / Archeology of the North Caucasus, VI Krupnov readings in Klasnodar. Theses of reports. M., 1976. С.12-13
[The Khazars, on the other hand, follow a religion similar to the religion of the Turks (Magyars - L.G.)". Hvolson D.A. News about Khazars, Bourgas, Bulgarians, Magyars, Slavs and Russians of Abu-Ali Ahmed ben-Omar Ibn-Dasta (Ibn-Rusta. - L.G.). SPb., 1869. С.17.
[33] Rybakov B.A. To a question on a role of Khazar Khaganate in the history of Rus// Soviet archeology. VOL. XVIII. 1953. С. 131; He also: Russ and Khazaria (to historical geography of Khazaria // To Academician B.D.Grekov to the day of his birthday. D.Grekov to the day of his seventieth birthday: Sb. Stats. М. 1952.
[34] Koestler A. Or. cil.
.